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THE 

Literary  Study  of  the  Bible 


AN   account  of  the 

LEADING  FORMS  OF  LITERATURE  REPRESENTED 
IN   THE   SACRED   WRITINGS 


INTENDED  FOR  ENGLISH  READERS 


BY 

RICHARD  G.  MOULTON,  M.A.   (Cambr.),  Ph.D.   (Penna.) 

PROFESSOR   OF   LITERATURE    IN    ENGLISH    IN   THE   UNIVERSITY    OF  CHICAGO 
LATE    UNIVERSITY   EXTENSION'    LECTURER    (CAMBRIDGE   AND   LONDON) 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 

D.   C.    HEATH   &   CO.,   PUBLISHERS 

1895 


Copyright,  1895, 
Bv  RICHARD  G.  MOULTON. 


Kortoool)  lOrfssa 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.      Berwick  &  Smith 

Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


An  author  falls  naturally  into  an  apologetic  tone  if  he  is  pro- 
posing to  add  yet  one  more  to  the  number  of  books  on  the  Bible. 
Yet  I  beheve  the  number  is  few  of  those  to  whom  the  Bible  appeals 
as  literature.  In  part,  no  doubt,  this  is  due  to  the  forbidding 
form  in  which  we  allow  the  Bible  to  be  presented  to  us.  Let  the 
reader  imagine  the  poems  of  Wordsworth,  the  plays  of  Shake- 
speare, the  essays  of  Bacon,  and  the  histories  of  Motley  to  be 
bound  together  in  a  single  volume ;  let  him  suppose  the  titles  of 
the  poems  and  essays  cut  out  and  the  names  of  speakers  and  divi- 
sions of  speeches  removed,  the  whole  divided  up  into  sentences 
of  a  convenient  length  for  parsing,  and  again  into  lessons  contain- 
ing a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  these  sentences.  If  the  reader 
can  carry  his  imagination  through  these  processes  he  will  have 
before  him  a  fair  parallel  to  the  literary  form  in  which  the  Bible 
has  come  to  the  modern  reader ;  it  is  true  that  the  purpose  for 
which  it  has  been  spUt  into  chapters  and  verses  is  something 
higher  than  instruction  in  parsing,  but  the  injury  to  literary  form 
remains  the  same. 

Of  course  earnest  students  of  Scripture  get  below  the  surface  of 
isolated  verses.  Yet  even  in  the  case  of  deep  students  the  hterary 
element  is  in  danger  of  being  overpowered  by  other  interests. 
The  devout  reader,  following  the  Bible  as  the  divine  authority  for 
his  spiritual  life,  feels  it  a  distraction  to  notice  literary  questions. 
And  thereby  he  often  impedes  his  own  purpose  :  poring  over  a 
passage  of  Job  to  discover  the  message  it  has  for  him,  and  for- 
getting all  the  while  the  dramatic  form  of  the  book,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  speaker  of  the  very  passage  he  is  studying  is  in  the  end 


iv  PREFACE 

pronounced  by  God  himself  to  have  said  the  thing  that  is  "  not 
right."  Another  has  been  led  by  his  studies  to  cast  off  the 
authority  of  the  Bible,  and  he  will  not  look  for  literary  pleasure  to 
that  which  has  for  him  associations  with  a  yoke  from  which  he  has 
been  delivered.  A  third  approaches  Scripture  with  equal  rever- 
ence and  scholarship.  Yet  even  for  him  there  is  a  danger  at  the 
present  moment,  when  the  very  bulk  of  the  discussion  tends  to 
crowd  out  the  thing  discussed,  and  but  one  person  is  willing  to 
read  the  Bible  for  every  ten  who  are  ready  to  read  about  it. 

Now  for  all  these  types  of  readers  the  literary  study  of  the 
Bible  is  a  common  meeting-ground.  One  who  recognises  that 
God  has  been  pleased  to  put  his  revelation  of  himself  in  the  form 
of  literature,  must  surely  go  on  to  see  that  literary  form  is  a  thing 
worthy  of  study.  The  agnostic  will  not  deny  that,  if  every  particle 
of  authority  and  supernatural  character  be  taken  from  the  Bible, 
it  will  remain  one  of  the  world's  great  literatures,  second  to  none. 
And  the  most  polemic  of  all  investigators  must  admit  that  appre- 
ciation is  the  end,  and  polemics  only  the  means. 

The  term  '  literary  study  of  the  Bible '  describes  a  wide  field 
of  which  the  present  work  attempts  to  cover  only  a  limited  part. 
In  particular,  the  term  will  include  the  most  prominent  of  all 
types  of  Bible  study,  that  which  is  now  universally  called  the 
*  Higher  Criticism.'  There  is  no  longer  any  need  to  speak  of  the 
splendid  processes  of  modern  Biblical  Criticism,  nor  of  the  mag- 
nitude even  of  its  undisputed  results.  I  mention  the  Higher 
Criticism  only  to  say  that  its  province  is  distinct  from  that  which 
I  lay  down  for  myself  in  this  book.  The  Higher  Criticism  is 
mainly  an  historical  analysis  ;  I  confine  myself  to  literary  investi- 
gation. By  the  literary  treatment  I  understand  the  discussion  of 
what  we  have  in  the  books  of  Scripture  ;  the  historical  analysis  goes 
behind  this  to  the  further  question  how  these  books  have  reached 
their  present  form.  I  think  the  distinction  of  the  two  treatments 
is  of  considerable  practical  importance  ;  since  the  historical'analy- 
sis  must,  in  the  nature  of  things,  divide  students  into  hostile  camps, 


PREFACE  V 

while,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the  literary  appreciation  of  Scripture  is 
a  common  ground  upon  which  opposing  schools  may  meet.  The 
conservative  thinker  maintains  that  Deuteronomy  is  the  personal 
composition  of  Moses ;  the  opposite  school  regard  the  book  as  a 
pious  fiction  of  the  age  of  Josiah.  But  I  do  not  see  how  either 
of  these  opinions,  if  true,  or  a  third  intermediate  opinion,  can  pos- 
sibly affect  the  question  with  which  I  desire  to  interest  the  reader, 
—  namely,  the  structure  of  Deuteronomy  as  it  stands,  whoever  may 
be  responsible  for  that  structure.  And  yet  the  structural  analysis 
of  our  Deuteronomy,  and  the  connection  of  its  successive  parts,  are 
by  no  means  clearly  understood  by  the  ordinary  reader  of  the  Bible. 
The  historical  and  the  literary  treatments  are  then  distinct :  yet 
sometimes  they  seem  to  clash.  There  are  two  points  in  particular 
as  to  which  I  find  myself  at  variance  with  the  accepted  Higher 
Criticism.  Historic  analysis,  investigating  dates,  sometimes  finds 
itself  obliged  to  discriminate  between  different  parts  of  the  same 
literary  composition,  and  to  assign  to  them  different  periods  ;  hav- 
ing accomplished  this  upon  sound  evidence,  it  then  often  proceeds, 
no  longer  upon  evidence,  but  by  tacit  assumption,  by  unconscious 
insinuations  rather  than  by  distinct  statement,  to  treat  the  earlier 
parts  of  such  a  composition  as  '  genuine  '  or  '  original,'  while  the 
portions  of  later  date  are  made  'interpolations,'  or  'accretions,'  — 
in  fact,  are  alluded  to  as  something  illegitimate.  Thus,  in  the  case 
oi Job,  few  will  hesitate  to  accept  the  theory  that  there  is  an  earlier 
nucleus  (to  speak  roughly)  in  the  dialogue,  while  the  speeches  of 
Elihu  and  the  Divine  Intervention  have  come  from  another  source. 
But  nearly  all  commentators  who  hold  this  view  seem  to  treat  these 
later  portions  as  if  they  were  on  a  lower  literary  plane,  and  —  so 
sensitive  is  taste  to  external  considerations  —  they  soon  find  them 
in  a  literary  sense  inferior.  This  whole  attitude  of  mind  seems  to 
me  unscientific  :  it  is  the  intrusion  of  the  modern  conception  of  a 
fixed  book  and  an  individual  author  into  a  totally  different  liter- 
ary age.  The  phenomena  of  floating  poetry,  with  community  of 
authorship  and  the  perpetual  revision  that  goes  with  oral  tradition, 
are  not  only  accepted  but  insisted  upon  by  biblical  scholars.     But 


vi  PREFACE 

in  such  floating  literature  our  modern  idea  of  '  originality '  has  no 
place ;  the  earliest  presentation  has  no  advantage  of  authenticity 
over  the  latest ;  nor  have  the  later  versions  necessarily  any  superi- 
ority to  the  earlier.  Processes  of  floating  poetry  produced  the 
Homeric  poems,  and  in  this  case  it  is  the  last  form,  not  the  first, 
that  makes  our  supreme  Iliad.  My  contention  is  that,  whatever 
may  be  the  truth  as  to  dates,  all  the  sections  of  such  a  poem  as 
Job  are  equally  *  genuine.'  And  as  a  matter  of  literary  analysis,  I 
find  the  Speeches  of  Elihu  and  the  Divine  Intervention,  from  what- 
ever sources  they  may  have  come,  carrying  forward  the  previous 
movement  of  the  poem  to  a  natural  dramatic  climax,  and  in  liter- 
ary effect  as  striking  as  any  part  of  the  book. 

My  second  objection  to  the  characteristic  methods  of  the  Higher 
Criticism  has  to  do  with  the  divisions  of  the  text.  In  analysing 
the  contents  of  a  book  of  Scripture  many  even  of  the  best  critics 
betray  an  almost  exclusive  preoccupation  with  subject  matter,  to 
the  neglect  of  literary  form  ;  a  powerful  search-light  is  thrown  upon 
minute  historic  allusions,  while  even  broad  indications  of  literary 
unity  or  diversity  are  passed  by.  I  will  take  a  typical  example. 
In  the  latter  part  of  our  Book  of  Micah  a  group  of  verses  (vii. 
7-10)  must  strike  even  a  casual  reader  by  their  buoyancy  of  tone, 
so  sharply  contrasting  with  what  has  gone  before.  Accordingly 
Wellhausen  sees  in  this  changed  tone  evidence  of  a  new  composi- 
tion, product  of  an  age  long  distant  from  the  age  of  the  prophet : 
"  between  v.  6  and  v.  7  there  yawns  a  century."  ^  What  really 
yawns  between  the  verses  is  simply  a  change  of  speakers.  The 
latter  part  of  Micah  is  admittedly  dramatic,  and  a  reader  attentive 
to  Hterary  form  cannot  fail  to  note  a  distinct  dramatic  composition 
introduced  by  the  title-verse  (vi.  9)  :  "The  voice  of  the  Lord 
crieth  unto  the  city,  and  the  man  of  wisdom  will  fear  thy  name." 
The  latter  part  of  the  title  —  "and  the  man  of  wisdom  will  fear 
thy  name  "  —  prepares  us  to  expect  an  addition  in  the  '  Man  of 
Wisdom  '  to  the  usual  dramatis  persona  of  prophetic  dramas,  which 
are  confined  to  God,  the  Prophet,  and  the  ruined  Nation.     AU 

1  Quoted  in  Driver's  Jutioduction,  in  loc. 


PREFACE  .  vii 

that  follows  the  title-verse  bears  out  the  description.  Verses  10-16 
are  the  words  of  denunciation  and  threatening  put  into  the  mouth 
of  God.  Then  the  first  six  verses  of  chapter  seven  voice  the  woe 
of  the  guilty  city.  Then  the  Man  of  Wisdom  speaks,  and  the  dis- 
puted verses  change  the  tone  to  convey  the  happy  confidence  of 
one  on  whose  side  the  divine  intervention  is  to  take  place  : 

But  as  for  me,  I  will  look  unto  the  Lord;  I  will  wait  for  the  God  of 
my  salvation :  my  God  will  hear  me.  Rejoice  not  against  me,  O  mine 
enemy :  when  I  fall,  I  shall  arise,  etc. 

The  sequence  of  verses  follows  quite  naturally  the  dramatic  form 
indicated  by  the  title,  and  no  break  in  the  text  is  required.  I  have 
no  objection  in  the  abstract  to  the  hypothesis  of  defects  in  textual 
transmission  ;  but  in  judging  of  any  alleged  example  it  is  reason- 
able to  give  to  indications  of  literary  form  a  weight  not  inferior  to 
that  of  suggestions  drawn  from  subject  matter. 

Besides  this  historic  analysis  other  obvious  lines  of  literary  treat- 
ment are  omitted  from  this  book.  I  have  scarcely  touched  such 
poetic  criticism  as  was  admirably  illustrated  by  the  digest  of 
Hebrew  imagery  which  Mr.  Montefiore  contributed  some  time 
since  to  the  Jeiuish  Quarterly  Review.  I  have  little  or  nothing 
to  say  about  the  style  of  biblical  writers,  although  I  welcome  Pro- 
fessor Cook's  introduction  of  the  Bible  as  a  model  in  the  teaching 
of  Rhetoric.  I  have  even  felt  compelled  to  drop  the  survey  of 
subject  matter  which  was  at  first  a  part  of  my  plan.  The  more  I 
have  studied  the  Bible  from  a  literary  standpoint,  and  considered 
also  the  conditions  for  making  such  a  standpoint  generally  acces- 
sible, the  more  one  single  aspect  of  the  subject  has  come  into 
prominence  —  the  treatment  of  literary  morphology:  how  to  dis- 
tinguish one  literary  composition  from  another,  to  say  exactly 
where  each  begins  and  ends  ;  to  recognise  Epic,  Lyric,  and  other 
forms  as  they  appear  in  their  biblical  dress,  as  well  as  to  distin- 
guish literary  forms  special  to  the  Sacred  writers.  Hence  the 
book  is  "An  account  of  the  leading  Forms  of  Literature  repre- 
sented in  the  Sacred  Writings."     The  whole  works  up  to  what  I 


viii  PREFACE 

have  called  a  "  Literary  Index  of  the  Bible."  This  ranges  from 
Genesis  to  Revelation,  including  the  apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom 
and  Ecdesiasticus ;  it  marks  off  exactly  each  separate  composition 
(or  integral  parts  of  the  longer  compositions),  indicates  the  hter- 
ary  form  of  each,  and,  where  suitable  (as  in  the  case  of  an  essay 
or  sonnet),  suggests  an  appropriate  title.  My  idea  is  that  a  stu- 
dent might  mark  these  divisions  and  titles  in  the  margin  of  his 
Revised  Version,  and  so  do  for  his  Bible  what  the  printer  would 
do  for  all  other  literature.  I  believe  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
overestimate  the  difference  made  to  our  power  of  appreciation  when 
the  hterary  form  of  what  we  are  reading  is  indicated  to  the  eye, 
instead  of  our  having  to  collect  it  laboriously  from  what  we  read. 
The  underlying  axiom  of  my  work  is  that  a  clear  grasp  of  the  outer 
literary  form  is  an  essential  guide  to  the  inner  matter  and  spirit. 

I  am  of  course  not  so  sanguine  as  to  suppose  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Sacred  Writings  in  this  Index  —  involving,  as  it  must, 
critical  questions  in  relation  to  every  book  of  the  Bible  —  will  be 
accepted.  I  desire  nothing  better  than  to  set  every  student  to 
make  such  an  arrangement  for  himself,  getting  help  from  every 
source  that  is  open  to  him ;  and  so  to  tide  over  the  period  before 
public  opinion  permits  the  Bible  to  be  issued  with  such  aids  to 
intelligent  reading  from  the  printed  page  as  are  taken  for  granted 
in  all  other  literature. 

I  have  spoken  so  far  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  general  or 
the  religious  reader.  But  a  consideration  of  a  different  kind  has 
had  weight  with  me  in  the  production  of  this  book  :  the  place  in 
liberal  education  of  the  Bible  treated  as  literature.  It  has  come 
by  now  to  be  generally  recognised  that  the  Classics  of  Greece  and 
Rome  stand  to  us  in  the  position  of  an  ancestral  literature,  —  the 
inspiration  of  our  great  masters,  and  bond  of  common  associations 
between  our  poets  and  their  readers.  But  does  not  such  a  posi- 
tion belong  equally  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible  ?  if  our  intellect 
and  imagination  have  been  formed  by  the  Greeks,  have  we  not  in 
similar   fashion   drawn  our   moral   and   emotional  training   from 


PREFACE  ix 

Hebrew  thought?  Whence  then  the  neglect  of  the  Bible  in  our 
higher  schools  and  colleges?  It  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  our 
civilisation  that  we  are  content  to  go  for  our  liberal  education  to 
literatures  which,  morally,  are  at  an  opposite  pole  from  ourselves  : 
literatures  in  which  the  most  exalted  tone  is  often  an  apotheosis 
of  the  sensuous,  which  degrade  divinity,  not  only  to  the  human 
level,  but  to  the  lowest  level  of  humanity.  Our  hardest  social 
problem  being  temperance,  we  study  in  Greek  the  glorification  of 
intoxication ;  while  in  mature  life  we  are  occupied  in  tracing  law 
to  the  remotest  corner  of  the  universe,  we  go  at  school  for  literary 
impulse  to  the  poetry  that  dramatises  the  burden  of  hopeless  fate. 
Our  highest  politics  aim  at  conserving  the  arts  of  peace,  our  first 
poetic  lessons  are  in  an  Iliad  \\\'3X  cannot  be  appreciated  without  a 
bloodthirsty  joy  in  killing.  We  seek  to  form  a  character  in  which 
delicacy  and  reserve  shall  be  supreme,  and  at  the  same  time  are 
training  our  taste  in  literatures  which,  if  published  as  English 
books,  would  be  seized  by  the  pohce.  I  recall  these  paradoxes, 
not  to  make  objection,  but  to  suggest  the  reasonableness  of  the 
claim  that  the  one  side  of  our  liberal  education  should  have 
another  side  to  balance  it.  Prudish  fears  may  be  unwise,  but 
there  is  no  need  to  put  an  embargo  upon  decency.  It  is  surely 
good  that  our  youth,  during  the  formative  period,  should  have 
displayed  to  them,  in  a  literary  dress  as  brilliant  as  that  of  Greek 
literature  —  in  lyrics  which  Pindar  cannot  surpass,  in  rhetoric  as 
forcible  as  that  of  Demosthenes,  or  contemplative  prose  not  in- 
ferior to  Plato's  —  a  people  dominated  by  an  utter  passion  for 
righteousness,  a  people  whom  ideas  of  purity,  of  infinite  good,  of 
universal  order,  of  faith  in  the  irresistible  downfall  of  all  moral 
evil,  moved  to  a  poetic  passion  as  fervid,  and  speech  as  musical, 
as  when  Sappho  sang  of  love  or  ^schylus  thundered  his  deep 
notes  of  destiny.  When  it  is  added  that  the  familiarity  of  the 
English  Bible  renders  all  this  possible  without  the  demand  upon 
the  time-table  that  would  be  involved  in  the  learning  of  another 
language,  it  seems  clear  that  our  school  and  college  curricula  will 
not  have  shaken  off  their  mediaeval  narrowness  and  renaissance 


X  PREFACE 

paganism  until  Classical  and  Biblical  literatures  stand  side  by  side 
as  sources  of  our  highest  culture. 

My  obligations  will  be  obvious  to  the  uiain  representative  works 
of  Biblical  Criticism,  more  especially  to  the  works  of  Cheyne, 
Briggs,  George  Adam  Smith,  and  the  late  Professor  JNIilligan ;  to 
the  lectures  of  President  Harper;  above  all  to  Canon  Driver's 
Introduction  to  Old  Testament  Literature,  which  has  placed  the 
best  results  of  modern  investigation  within  easy  reach  of  the  ordi- 
nary reader.  I  have  made  copious  citations  from  the  Revised 
Version  of  the  Bible  and  Apocrypha,  for  the  use  of  which  I  am 
under  obligations  to  the  University  Presses  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. I  am  indebted  for  assistance  of  various  kinds  to  personal 
friends,  amongst  whom  I  ought  to  mention  my  brother,  Dr.  Moulton, 
of  the  Leys  School,  and  —  here  as  always  —  Mr.  Joseph  Jacobs, 
who  has  become  to  his  large  circle  of  friends  a  universal  referee 
for  all  departments  of  study.  I  have  other  obligations  in  my 
memory,  which  it  is  not  so  easy  to  specify ;  obligations  to  public 
institutions  and  private  individuals  whose  encouragement  has 
assisted  me  at  every  step.  For  the  last  four  years  I  have  been 
lecturing  on  Biblical  literature  in  churches  of  various  denomina- 
tions, in  theological  schools  and  universities,  and  in  popular  lecture 
rooms ;  my  audiences  in  England  and  America  have  included 
clergy  and  laity.  Christian  and  Jewish,  not  without  a  representa- 
tion of  that  other  public  which  never  reads  the  Bible  and  hears 
with  surprise  its  most  notable  passages.  Though  I  have  taken 
pains  to  inquire,  I  have  never  found  examples  of  the  difficulties 
which  it  was  feared  by  some  the  handling  of  this  topic  on  the 
lecture  platform  might  create.  On  the  contrary,  my  experience 
has  uniformly  confirmed  what  I  have  called  above  the  foundation 
axiom  of  my  work  —  that  an  increased  apprehension  of  outer 
literary  form  is  a  sure  way  of  deepening  spiritual  effect, 

I  think  it  right  to  state  that  the  issue  of  this  work  —  announced 
more  than  a  year  ago  —  has  been  delayed  by  circumstances  for 
which  neither  author  nor  publishers  are  responsible. 

RICHARD   G.   MOULTON. 

August,  1895. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

The  Book  of  Job  :  and  the  Various  Kinds  of  Literary  Interest 

illustrated  by  it 3 

BOOK   FIRST 

LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  APPLIED    TO    THE 
SACRED   SCRIPTURES 

CHAPTER 
y  I.      VERSIFICATION    AND    RHYTHMIC    TARALLELISM  ...         45 

II.    The  Higher  Parallelism,  or  Parallelism  of  Interpre- 
tation         68 

X^    III.    The  Lo^vER  and  the  Higher  Unity  in  Literature          .  8i 

IV.    Classification  of  Literary  Forms 105 

BOOK  SECOND 

LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

^■-       V.    The  Biblical  Ode 127 

VI.  Occasional  Poetry,  Elegies,  and  Liturgical  Psalms       .  153 

VII.  Dramatic  Lyrics,  and  Lyrics  of  Meditation    .        .        .  174 

VIII.     Lyric  Idyl:    '.Solomon's  Song' 194 

BOOK    THIRD 

BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

IX.     Erie  Poetry  of  the  Bible 221 

X.     Biblical  History  in  its  Relation  with  Biblical  Eimc    .     244 


xii  CONTENTS 

BOOK   FOURTH 

THE   PHILOSOPHY   OF   THE   BIBLE,    OR    WISDOM 
LITERATURE 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XL     Forms  of  Wisdom  Literature 255 

XI L    The  Sacred  Books  ok  Wisdom 284 

XIIL     '  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon  ' 305 

BOOK   FIFTH 

BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

XIV.  Forms  of  Prophetic  Literature 327 

XV.  Forms  of  Prophetic  Literature:  The  Doom  Song  .        .     353 

XVI.  Forms  of  Prophetic  Literature:  The  Rhapsody      .        .     364 

XVII.  The  Rhapsody  of  'ZioN  Redeemed'    {^haiah  y\-\%.\\]         .    395 

XVIII.  The  Works  of  the  Prophets      .        .        .      '  .        .        .417 

BOOK   SIXTH 

THE  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  RHETORIC 

XIX.    The  Epistles:  or  Written  Rhetoric         ....    439 
y    XX.     Spoken  Rhetoric  :  and  the  '  Book  of  Deuteronomy  '      .    444 


APPENDICES 

I.  Literary  Index  to  the  Bible     . 

II.  Tables  of  Literary  Forms 

III.  On  the  Structural  Printing  of  Scripture 

IV.  Use  of  the  Digression  in  '  Wisdom  ' 


465 
499 
512 
521 


GENERAL   INDEX 


527 


INTRODUCTION 


THE   BOOK  OF  JOB:   AND  THE   VARIOUS  KINDS  OF 
LITERARY    INTEREST   ILLUSTRATED   BY   IT 


INTRODUCTION 


The  story  in  the  Book  of  Job  opens  by  telling  how  there  was  a 
man  in  the  land  of  Uz  whose  name  was  Job ;  how  he  was  perfect 
and  upright,  a  man  that  feared  God  and  eschewed  „    k  f  t  b- 
evil.     It  tells  of  his  great  substance  in  sheep  and   The  story  Opens 
camels  and  oxen,  and  how  he  was  the  greatest  of  ^'  " 
all  the  children  of  the  east.     Then  it  speaks   of  his  seven  sons 
and  three  daughters,  and  describes  their  joyous  family  life.     And  so 
scrupulous  was  the  piety  of  Job  that,  when  his  sons  and  daughters 
had  concluded  a  round  of  feastings  at  one  another's  houses.  Job 
rose  early  and  sanctified  them,  lest  perchance  in  their  gaiety  they 
had  offended  God. 

Then  the  story  passes  to  a  Council  in  Heaven,  at  which  the 
sons  of  God  came,  each  from  his  several  province,  to  present 
themselves  before  the  Lord  ;  and  amongst  them  came  the  Adver- 
sary from  his  sphere  of  inspection,  the  Earth.  He  in  his  turn 
was  questioned  as  to  his  charge,  and  Job  was  instanced  by  the 
Lord  as  a  type  of  human  perfection.  But  the  Adversary,  as  his 
office  was,  began  to  raise  doubts  as  to  this  perfection.  God  had 
made  a  hedge  of  prosperity  about  the  man  :  if  he  were  to  put 
forth  his  hand,  and  destroy  all  at  a  stroke.  Job  might  yet  renounce 
his  worship. 

The  Lord  gave  consent  for  this  experiment  to  be  made.  So  it 
came  about  that  in  the  midst  of  Job's  prosperity  there  came  a 
messenger  to  him  and  said  : 

3 


4  LITER AKY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  oxen  were  plowing, 

and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them; 

and  the  Sabeans  fell  upon  them 

and  took  them  away; 

yea,  they  have  slain  the  servants 

with  the  edge  of  the  sword; 

and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said  : 

The  fire  of  God  is  fallen  from  heaven, 

and  hath  burned  up  the  sheep,  and  the  servants, 

and  consumed  them; 

and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee  ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said  : 

The  Chaldeans  made  three  bands, 

and  fell  upon  the  camels, 

and  have  taken  them  away, 

yea,  and  slain  the  servants  with  the  edge  of  the  sword; 

and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said  : 

Thy  sons  and  thy  daughters 

were  eating  and  drinking  wine  in  their  eldest  brother's  house; 

and  behold, 

there  came  a  great  wind  from  the  wilderness, 

and  smote  the  four  corners  of  the  house, 

and  it  fell  upon  the  young  men, 

and  they  are  dead; 

and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

Then  Job  arose,  and  rent  his  mantle,  and  shaved  his  head,  and 
fell  down  upon  the  ground,  and  worshipped  ;  and  he  said  : 

Naked  came  I  out  of  my  mother's  womb, 
and  naked  shall  I  return  thither ! 

The  Lord  gave, 

and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away : 

Blessed  be  the  Name  of  the  Lord  ! 


INTRODUCTION  5 

So  the  experiment  of  the  Adversary  was  over,  and  Job  had  not 
fallen  into  sin. 

A  second  Council  in  Heaven  followed,  and  a  second  time  came 
the  sons  of  God,  and  the  Adversary  among  them,  and  made  their 
reports.  When  the  Lord  triumphed  in  the  matter  of  Job,  that  he 
still  retained  his  integrity  notwithstanding  the  destruction  done  to 
him,  the  Adversary  did  honour  to  the  goodness  of  the  man  by 
suggesting  a  yet  severer  test : 

Skin  for  skin,  yea,  all  that  a  man  hath  will  he  give  for  his  life.  But 
put  forth  thine  hand  now,  and  touch  his  bone  and  his  flesh,  and  he 
will  renounce  thee  to  thy  face. 

Even  in  this  case  the  Almighty  had  no  fear  for  his  servant.  So 
the  Adversary  went  forth,  and  smote  Job  with  sore  boils  from  the 
sole  of  his  foot  unto  his  crown.  And  Job  silently  passed  out,  as 
one  unclean,  and  crept  up  the  ash-mound,  and  there  he  sat  and 
suffered  ;  until  his  good  wife  —  who  had  uttered  no  word  of  com- 
plaint when  all  the  substance  was  swallowed  up  and  her  children 
perished  —  broke  down  in  the  presence  of  this  helpless  pain  : 

Dost  thou  still  hold  fast  thine  integrity?  renounce  God,  and  die! 

But  Job  rebuked  this  momentary  lapse  from  her  wisdom  : 

What?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hand  of  God,  and  shall  we  not 
receive  evil? 

So  the  second  experiment  was  over,  and  still  Job  sinned  not  with 
his  Hps. 

But  a  third  trial  awaited  Job,  which  needed  no  Council  in 
Heaven  to  decree  it, —  the  trial  of  time.  Day  followed  day,  but 
no  relief  came  ;  and  Job  sat  patiently  on  the  ash-mound,  an  out- 
cast and  unclean.  And  gradually  a  reverence  grew  about  the 
silent  sufferer :  the  children  no  longer  jostled  him  as  they  sported 
to  and  fro,  and  groups  of  sympathising  spectators  would  gather 
about  the  mound  to  gaze  for  a  while  on  the  fallen  child  of  the 
east.     And  the  travellers  as   they  passed  by  the  way  smote  on 


6  LITERARY  STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

their  breasts  at  the  sight ;  and  they  made  a  token  of  it,  and 
carried  the  news  into  distant  countries,  until  it  reached  the  ears 
of  Job's  three  Friends,  all  of  them  great  chieftains  like  himself: 
the  stately  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  and  Bildad  the  sturdy  Shuhite, 
and  Zophar  the  Naamathite,  with  his  venerable  grey  hairs.  These 
three  made  an  appointment  together  to  visit  Job ;  and,  when  they 
came  in  sight  of  him,  with  one  accord  they  lifted  up  their  voices 
and  wept.  And  the  crowd  of  spectators  made  way  for  the  great 
men  to  ascend  the  mound ;  and  they  sat  down  upon  the  ground 
opposite  Job.  Day  after  day  they  took  their  station  there,  yet 
they  could  only  weep  with  their  friend ;  for,  though  they  longed 
to  speak,  their  utter  courtesy  forbade  them  to  disturb  the  majesty 
of  that  silent  suffering. 

At  last  it  was  Job  himself  who  broke  the  long  silence,  in  order 
to  curse,  not  God,  but  his  own  life.  And  at  this  point  the  intro- 
ductory story  in  which  the  poem  is  framed  begins  to  give  place  to 
dialogue ;  but  not  before  the  introduction  has  made  its  contribu- 
(Probiem  of  the  *-^°^^  ^°  *^^  general  argument.  The  topic  of  the 
poem  and  First  whole  book  is  the  Mystery  of  Human  Suffering : 
Solution)  ^j^g  introduction  has  suggested  a  First  Solution  of 

the  Mystery:  Sufferi?ig  prese7ited  as  Heaven^ s  test  of  goodness ; 
the  test  being  made  the  severer  where  the  goodness  is  strong 
enough  to  stand  it. 

Job  opened  his  mouth,  and  cursed  the  day  of  his  birth.  Would 
that  it  might  be  blotted  from  among  the  days  of  the  year,  that  the 

cloud,  and  the  thick  darkness,  and  the  shadow  of 
jjj  death,  and  all  the  degrees  of  blackness  might  seize 

it  for  their  own  !  If  the  best  of  all  gifts —  never  to 
have  existed  —  must  be  denied  him,  why  might  not  that  day  of 
his  l)irth  have  also  brought  to  him  the  Grave,  and  the  long  quiet 
sleep  with  the  stately  dead,  and  with  the  wicked  and  the  weary, 
the  prisoner  and  his  task-master,  the  small  and  the  great,  all  at 
their  ease  together?  Why  should  life  be  forced  upon  the  bitter 
in  soul? 


INTR  OD  UC  TION  7 

In  these  later  thoughts  Job  seems  to  reflect  upon  the  order  of 

God's  providence  :    he   must  be   checked,  and  yet  gently ;    and 

Eliphaz  takes  this  task  upon  himself.     He  dreads 

,  .      -  .       :  ,  ,  ^    .       The  Dramatic 

to  give  pam  to  his  friend,  yet  how  can  he  refrain  Dialogue 

from  speaking,  and  laying  down  to  Job  the  foun-   ^^^^^  ^y^^^ 

dations  of  hope  and  fear  with  which  Job  himself 

has  so  often  comforted  the  afflicted? 

Now  a  thing  was  secretly  brought  to  me, 
And  mine  ear  received  a  whisper  thereof: 

In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night, 

When  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men, 

Fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling, 

Which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake. 

Then  a  spirit  passed  before  my  face ; 

The  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up. 

It  stood  still,  but  I  could  not  discern  the  appearance  thereof; 

A  form  was  before  mine  eyes : 

There  was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  saying, 
"Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God? 
Shall  a  man  be  more  pure  than  his  Maker?" 

With  the  awful  solemnity  of  this  vision  Eliphaz  enforces  the  view 
which  the  three  Friends  maintain  throughout  the  discussion,  and 
which  is  put  forward  as  a  Secojui  Solution  of  the  Probletn  :  The 
very  righteousness  of  God  (they  think)  is  involved  in  the  doct7'ine 
that  all  Sujfering  is  a  judgment  upon  Sin.  Affliction,  says  Eliphaz, 
does  not  spring  up  of  itself  like  the  grass,  but  it  is  they  who  have 
sown  trouble  that  reap  the  same.  But  he  puts  the  doctrine  gently, 
as  constituting  so  much  hope  for  Job  :  when  the  sinner  has  once 
sought  unto  God  he  will  find  what  great  and  unsearchable 
wonders  God  doeth.  Then  happy  will  have  been  the  chastening 
of  the  Almighty,  for  if  he  maketh  sore  he  bindeth  up. 

He  shall  deliver  thee  in  six  troubles; 

Yea,  in  seven  there  shall  no  evil  touch  thee. 

In  famine  he  shall  redeem  thee  from  death; 

And  in  war  from  the  power  of  the  sword. 

Thou  shall  be  hid  from  the  scourge  of  the  tongue; 


8  LITERARY  STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

Neither  shalt  thou  be  afraid  of  destruction  when  it  cometh. 

At  destruction  and  dearth  thou  shalt  laugh  : 

Neither  shalt  thou  be  afraid  of  the  beasts  of  the  earth. 

For  thou  shalt  be  in  league  with  the  stones  of  the  field; 

And  the  beasts  of  the  field  shall  be  at  peace  with  thee. 

And  thou  shalt  know  that  thy  tent  is  in  peace; 

And  thou  shalt  visit  thy  fold  and  shalt  miss  nothing. 

Thou  shalt  know  also  that  thy  seed  shall  be  great, 

And  thine  oflspring  as  the  grass  of  the  earth. 

Thou  shalt  come  to  thy  grave  in  a  full  age, 

Like  as  a  shock  of  corn  cometh  in  in  its  season. 
Lo  this,  we  have  searched  it,  so  it  is; 
Hear  it,  and  know  thou  it  for  thy  good. 

Job  is  bitterly  disappointed  at  thus  meeting  reproof  where  he 
had  looked  for  consolation. 

My  brethren  have  dealt  deceitfully  as  a  brook, 

As  the  channel  of  brooks  that  pass  away; 
Which  are  black  by  reason  of  the  ice. 
And  wherein  the  snow  hideth  itself: 
What  time  they  wax  warm,  they  vanish : 
When  it  is  hot,  they  are  consumed  out  of  their  place. 
The  paths  of  their  way  are  turned  aside. 
They  go  up  into  the  waste  and  perish. 
The  caravans  of  Tema  looked. 
The  companies  of  Sheba  waited  for  them. 

They  were  ashamed  because  they  had  hoped; 

They  came  thither  and  were  confounded. 

The  comfort  Job  longs  for  is  the  crushing  pain  that  would  cut 
him  off  altogether.  And  has  he  not  a  right  to  look  for  it?  Is  not 
man's  life  a  warfare  for  a  limited  time  ? 

As  a  servant  that  earnestly  desireth  the  shadow, 
And  as  an  hireling  that  looketh  for  his  wages, 

SO  Job  passes  his  wearisome  nights  and  months  of  vanity. 

If  I  have  sinned,  what  can  I  do  unto  thee, 

O  thou  watcher  of  men? 
Why  hast  thou  set  nie  as  a  mark  for  thee. 

So  that  I  am  a  burden  to  myself? 


INTRODUCTION  9 

And  why  dost  thou  not  pardon  my  transgression, 

And  take  away  mine  iniquity? 
For  now  shall  I  lie  down  in  the  dust; 

And  thou  shalt  seek  me  diligently, 
But  I  shall  not  be ! 

Job  never  claims  to  be  sinless,  but  he  knows  that  no  sin  of  his 
can  be  proportionate  to  the  total  ruin  that  has  fallen  upon  him. 
But  this  does  not  satisfy  the  second  speaker. 

Doth  God  pervert  judgement? 

Or  doth  the  Almighty  pervert  justice? 

Will  not  Job  disentangle  himself  from  the  transgression  which  has 
already  found  victims  in  his  children?  For  so  surely  as  the  flag 
cannot  grow  without  water :  though  it  be  green  and  spreading 
above,  with  roots  wrapped  round  and  round  its  solid  bed,  yet  it 
perishes  as  if  it  had  never  been  seen  :  so  surely  God  will  not 
uphold  the  evil-doer.     But  neither  will  God  cast  away  a  perfect 

man. 

He  will  yet  fill  thy  mouth  with  laughter. 

And  thy  lips  with  shouting. 
They  that  hate  thee  shall  be  clothed  with  shame, 

And  the  tent  of  the  wicked  shall  be  no  more. 

Job  knows  of  a  truth  that  it  is  so.  Yet  how  can  a  man  be  just 
with  God : 

Which  removeth  the  mountains,  and  they  know  it  not, 
When  he  overturneth  them  in  his  anger. 

Which  shalceth  the  earth  out  of  her  place, 
And  the  pillars  thereof  tremble. 

Which  commandeth  the  sun,  and  it  riseth  not; 
And  sealeth  up  the  stars. 

What  answer  but  supplication  is  possible  before  that  overpower- 
ing Strength?  a  Strength  that  can  destroy  both  the  perfect  and 
the  wicked  alike  :  for  if  it  be  not  God  who  does  this,  who  is  it  ? 
Certain  it  is  that  the  earth  is  given  into  the  hand  of  the  wicked. 
However  innocent  the  accused  may  be,  before  that  Strength  his 
own  mouth  would  condemn  him. 


10  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

If  I  wash  myself  with  snow  water, 
And  make  my  hands  never  so  clean : 

Yet  wilt  thou  plunge  me  in  the  ditch. 

And  mine  own  clothes  shall  abhor  me. 
For  he  is  not  a  man,  as  I  am,  that  I  should  answer  him. 
That  we  should  come  together  in  judgement; 
There  is  no  daysman  betwixt  us, 
That  might  lay  his  hand  upon  us  both. 

And  Job  appeals  to  God  himself  against  this  oppression  of  his 
own  handiwork. 

Thine  hands  have  framed  me 

And  fashioned  me  together  round  about; 

Yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 
Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as  clay; 

And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again? 
Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk. 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese? 
Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh, 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews. 

It  is  but  a  small  boon  that  the  creature  asks  of  his  Creator :  that 
he  may  be  let  alone  for  a  brief  space  — 

Before  I  go  whence  I  shall  not  return : 
Even  to  the  land  of  darkness 

And  of  the  shadow  of  death  : 
A  land  of  thick  darkness, 
As  darkness  itself; 

A  land  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

Without  any  order. 
And  where  the  light  is  as  darkness. 

Zophar  is  deeply  shocked  at  a  spectacle  he  has  never  beheld  in 
all  his  long  life,  —  a  good  man  questioning  a  visible  judgment  of 

God. 

Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God? 

Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection? 

It  is  high  as  heaven;   what  canst  thou  do? 

Deeper  than  Sheol;  what  canst  thou  know? 

The  measure  thereof  is  longer  than  the  earth, 

And  broader  than  the  sea. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

There  is  no  course  for  Job  but  to  set  his  heart  aright,  and  put 
iniquity  far  away ;  then  shall  he  again  lift  up  a  spotless  countenance 
before  God. 

For  thou  shalt  forget  thy  misery; 

Thou  shalt  remember  it  as  waters  that  are  passed  away: 
And  thy  life  shall  be  clearer  than  the  noonday; 

Though  there  be  darkness,  it  shall  be  as  the  morning. 

Before  the  persistent  dogmatism  ol  the  three  Friends  Job  loses 
more  and  more  the  patience  which  had  stood  the  shocks  of  the 

Adversary. 

No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people. 
And  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 
But  I  have  understanding  as  well  as  you; 
I  am  not  inferior  to  you  : 
Yea,  who  knoweth  not  such  things  as  these? 

The  just  man  is  made  a  laughing-stock,  and  the  tents  of  robbers 
prosper :  and  yet  the  very  beasts  of  the  field  can  tell  the  inquirer 
that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  is  responsible  for  every  breath  of  every 
living  thing.  What,  do  the  Friends  stand  forth  as  representatives 
of  Wisdom  ?     Nay, 

With  Him  is  wisdom  and  might; 
He  hath  counsel  and  understanding. 

Priests  and  counsellors  spoiled,  kings  bound  and  unbound,  the 
mighty  overthrown,  speech  reft  from  the  trusty,  and  understanding 
from  the  elders,  contempt  poured  upon  princes,  and  the  belt  of 
the  strong  loosed  :  these  declare  the  Wisdom  to  which  alone  Job 
will  appeal.  Will  the  Friends  lie  on  God's  behalf?  Will  they  be 
partial  advocates  in  his  cause? 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  wait  for  him  : 
Nevertheless  I  will  maintain  my  ways  before  him. 

Job  appeals  to  God  against  God's  own  dealings,  and  never  doubts 
the  issue  of  his  appeal.  And  yet  he  is  so  feeble  to  plead  his  cause  : 
a  driven  leaf,  a  fettered  prisoner,  a  moth-eaten  rag  !  And  the 
time  left  for  his  vindication  is  so  short  ! 


12  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Man  that  is  born  of  a  woman 

Is  of  few  days,  and  full  of  trouble; 

He  Cometh  forth  like  a  flower,  and  is  cut  down, 

He  fleeth  also  as  a  shadow  and  continueth  riot. 

For  there  is  hope  of  a  tree,  if  it  be  cut  down, 

That  it  will  sprout  again, 

And  that  the  tender  branch  thereof  will  not  cease  ; 
Though  the  root  thereof  wax  old  in  the  earth 
And  the  stock  thereof  die  in  the  ground, 

Yet  through  the  scent  of  water  it  will  bud, 

And  put  forth  boughs  like  a  plant. 
But  man  dieth,  and  wasteth  away  : 
Yea,  man  giveth  up  the  ghost,  and  where  is  he? 

As  the  waters  fail  from  the  sea. 

And  the  river  decayeth  and  drieth  up, 
So  man  lieth  down  and  riseth  not; 

Till  the  heavens  be  no  more, 
They  shall  not  awake. 
Nor  be  roused  out  of  their  sleep. 

A  Strange  fancy  plays  for  a  moment  with  the  emotions  of  the 
sufferer,  —  the  fancy  that  the  Grave  itself  might  be  sweet,  if  only 
there  might  come  the  vindication  beyond  it. 

Oh  that  thou  wouldest  hide  me  in  Sheol, 

That  thou  wouldest  keep  me  secret,  until  thy  wrath  be  past. 

That  thou  wouldest  appoint  me  a  set  time,  and  remember  me ! 

—  If  a  man  die,  shall  he  live  again?  — 
All  the  days  of  my  warfare  would  I  wait. 

Till  my  release  should  come; 

Thou  shouldest  call. 
And  I  would  answer  thee  : 
Thou  wouldest  have  a  desire  to  the  work  of  thine  hands. 

But  Job  dismisses  the  thought  as  vain. 

Surely  the  mountain  falling  cometh  to  nought. 
And  the  rock  is  removed  out  of  its  place, 
The  waters  wear  the  stones, 

The  overflowings  thereof  wash  away  the  dust  of  the  earth: 
And  thou  dcstroyest  the  hope  of  man  : 


INTK  OD  UC  TION  13 

Thou  prevailest  for  ever  against  him,  and  he  passeth; 

Thou  changest  his  countenance,  and  sendest  him  away; 
His  sons  come  to  honour, 

And  he  knoweth  it  not; 
And  they  are  brought  low, 

But  he  perceiveth  it  not  of  them; 

Only  for  himself  his  flesh  hath  pain 

And  for  himself  his  soul  mourneth. 

It   has  come  to  the  turn  of  Eliphaz   again  to  speak :    he  is 
shocked  that  Job  should  resist  the  united  appeals  second  Cycle 
of  his  Friends.  xv-xxi 

Art  thou  the  first  man  that  was  born? 

Or  wast  thou  brought  forth  before  the  hills? 
Hast  thou  heard  the  secret  counsel  of  God? 

And  dost  thou  restrain  wisdom  to  thyself? 

On  his  side,  Eliphaz  says,  and  perhaps  as  he  speaks  he  lays  his 
hand  upon  the  shoulder  of  Zophar,  are  the  aged  and  greyheaded, 
men  much  older  than  Job's  father.  Then  he  proceeds  to  formu- 
late again  the  doctrine  of  the  unfailing  judgment  upon  sin,  a  judg- 
ment never  so  certain  as  when  it  appears  for  the  time  to  be  delayed. 

The  wicked  man  travaileth  with  pain  all  his  days, 

Even  the  number  of  years  that  are  laid  up  for  the  oppressor. 

A  sound  of  terrors  is  in  his  ears; 

In  prosperity  the  spoiler  shall  come  upon  him  : 

He  believeth  not  that  he  shall  return  out  of  darkness, 

And  he  is  waited  for  of  the  sword. 

Job  cries  out  against  such  miserable  consolation  as  this  :  for  his 
comfort  he  will  go  to  a  very  different  source. 

O  earth,  cover  not  thou  my  blood, 
And  let  my  cry  have  no  resting-place. 
Even  now,  behold,  my  Witness  is  in  heaven. 
And  He  that  voucheth  for  me  is  on  high. 

But  once  more  the  certainty  of  an  ultimate  vindication  is  over- 
shadowed by  the  thought  of  the  rapidly  flitting  life. 


14  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

If  I  look  for  Sheol  as  mine  house; 

If  I  have  spread  my  couch  in  the  darkness; 

If  I  have  said  to  corruption,  Thou  art  my  father; 

To  the  worm,  Thou  art  my  mother,  and  my  sister; 

Where  then  is  my  hope? 

Bildad  rebukes  Job's  discomposure  of  manner. 

Thou  that  tearest  thyself  in  thine  anger, 

Shall  the  earth  be  forsaken  for  thee? 

Or  shall  the  rock  be  removed  out  of  its  place  ? 

He  Sternly  reiterates  the  doctrine  of  judgment,  and  images  of 
doom  flow  freely.  Nets  and  toils  are  under  the  feet  of  the  sinner, 
gins  and  snares  are  all  about  him  ;  his  strength  is  hungerbitten  and 
the  firstborn  of  death  devours  his  members  ;  brimstone  is  scattered 
upon  his  habitation ;  he  is  driven  from  light  into  darkness  and 
chased  out  of  the  world. 

Such  reiteration  simply  drives  Job  to  stronger  and  stronger  self- 
assertion  :  in  set  terms  he  declares  that  God  subverteth  him  in  his 
cause,  and  denies  him  the  judgment  for  which  he  calls.  And 
God  has  removed  all  other  succour  from  him  :  his  kinsfolk  have 
failed  him,  his  acquaintance  are  estranged,  his  very  household 
look  upon  him  as  an  alien. 

Have  pity  upon  me,  have  pity  upon  me, 

O  ye  my  friends, 
For  the  hand  of  God  hath  touched  me  ! 

But  the  weakness  of  a  moment  is  transformed  into  a  burst  of 
strength,  as  he  proceeds  to  lay  his  hopes  upon  a  help  from  above. 

Oh  that  my  words  were  now  written ! 

Oh  that  they  were  inscribed  in  a  book  ! 

That  with  an  iron  pen  and  lead 

They  were  graven  in  the  rock  for  ever ! 
For  I  know  that  My  Vindicator  liveth, 
And  that  he  shall  stand  up  at  the  last  upon  the  earth; 
And  after  my  skin  hath  lieen  thus  destroyed. 
Yet  without  my  flesh  shall  I  see  God ! 
Whom  I  shall  sec  on  my  side, 
And  mine  eves  shall  behold,  and  not  another! 


INTRODUCTION  15 

With  the  overpowering  emotions  called  up  by  this  thought  Job 
almost  faints  : 

—  My  reins  are  consumed  within  me  — 

but  after  a  pause  he  recovers  himself,  and  is. able  to  bring  his 
speech  to  a  conclusion. 

Zophar  can  scarcely  wait  his  opportunity  for  speaking ;  his 
thoughts  anticipate  his  words  on  the  favourite  topic. 

Knowest  thou  not  this  of  old  time, 

Since  man  was  placed  upon  earth, 
That  the  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short, 
And  the  joy  of  the  godless  but  fur  a  moment? 

And  many  wise  saws  are  poured  forth  by  Zophar,  testifying  to  this 
mockery  of  the  sinner. 

His  children  shall  seek  the  favour  of  the  poor. 

And  his  hands  shall  give  back  his  wealth. 

His  bones  are  full  of  his  youth, 

But  it  shall  lie  down  with  him  in  the  dust.  .  .  . 

The  heavens  shall  reveal  his  iniquity 

And  the  earth  shall  rise  up  against  him. 

The  doctrine  thus  thrust  upon  him  again  and  again  Job  at  last 
begins  to  look  fairly  in  the  face  ;  and  the  more  he  considers  it  the 
more  he  trembles  at  the  doubts  that  come  crowding  into  his  mind. 

How  oft  is  it  that  the  lamp  of  the  wicked  is  put  out? 

That  their  calamity  cometh  upon  them? 

That  God  distributeth  sorrows  in  his  anger? 

That  they  are  as  stubble  before  the  wind, 

And  as  chaff  that  the  storm  carrieth  away?  .  .  . 

One  dieth  in  his  full  strength, 

Being  wholly  at  ease  and  quiet : 

His  breasts  are  full  of  milk, 

And  the  marrow  of  his  bones  is  moistened. 

And  another  dieth  in  bitterness  of  soul, 

And  never  tasteth  of  good. 
They  lie  down  alike  in  the  dust, 
And  the  worm  covereth  them. 


16  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Eliphaz  will   not   notice  these  doubts  of  Job ;    his   righteous 
indignation  with  his  friend  has  reached  a  climax, 
Tt^^l-TtJ-,^  ^  ^^^  casting  restraint  aside  he  openly  accuses  Job 

of  sin. 


xxii-xxr 


Thou  hast  taken  pledges  of  thy  brother  for  nought, 
And  stripped  the  naked  of  their  clothing. 
Thou  hast  not  given  water  to  the  weary  to  drink, 
And  thou  hast  withholden  bread  from  the  hungry. 

Therefore  has  trouble  come  upon  him  :  but  there  is  yet  a  place 
for  repentance.  If  Job  will  acquaint  himself  with  God  and  put 
unrighteousness  away,  he  may  still  delight  himself  again  in  the 
Almighty. 

Job  makes  no  reply  as  yet  to  the  cruel  accusations  :  his  thoughts 
are  upon  the  heavenly  Vindicator. 

Oh  that  I  knew  where  I  might  find  him : 
That  I  might  come  even  to  his  seat ! 

There  he  would  have  a  judge  that  would  not  use  his  greatness  to 
confound  him. 

Behold  I  go  forward, 

But  he  is  not  there; 
And  backward, 

But  I  cannot  perceive  him  : 
On  the  left  hand,  when  he  doth  work, 

But  I  cannot  behold  him; 
He  hideth  himself  on  the  right  hand. 

That  I  cannot  see  him. 
But  he  knoweth  the  way  that  I  take; 

When  he  hath  tried  me, 

I  shall  come  forth  as  gold. 

His  spirit  purified  by  this  meditation.  Job  is  able  with  calm  delib 
erateness  to  lay  before  his  Friends  the  new  thoughts  which  are 
troubling  him  :  the  doubt  whether  his  own  is  after  all  an  excep- 
tional case,  whether  it  be  not  rather  the  truth  that  in  life  taken  as 
a  whole  the  times  of  the  Almighty  are  not  plainly  to  be  seen.     He 


INTRODUCTION  17 

speaks  of  the  violence  in  the  world,  and  the  poverty  that  violence 
brings  in  its  train  :  how  men  remove  the  ancient  landmarks  and 
drive  the  needy  out  of  the  way,  until  they  have  to  seek  precarious 
subsistence  from  the  inclement  wilderness,  or  labour  in  the  fields 
of  which  they  may  never  eat.  He  tells  of  violence  in  the  city, 
and  cries  rising  to  a  regardless  God  ;  of  the  thief,  the  adulterer, 
the  murderer,  —  men  who  rebel  altogether  against  the  light,  and 
the  dawn  comes  upon  them  like  a  shadow  of  death.  Yet  all  these 
fare  just  like  the  rest  of  mankind. 

They  are  exalted;   yet  a  little  while,  and  they  are  gone; 
Yea,  they  are  brought  low,  they  are  gathered  in,  as  all  other ! 

Bildad  cannot  meet  these  questionings  of  Job  :  his  thoughts 
are  filled  with  the  overpowering  greatness  of  God.  He  rises  on 
the  wave  of  a  great  theme,  as  he  pictures  the  Ruler 
of  the  Universe  engaged  in  matters  of  high  celestial 
policy,  or  discovering  blemishes  in  the  brightness  of  the  stars ; 
before  him  the  Shades  beneath  the  sea  tremble  ;  ^  Destruction 
and  the  Abyss  reveal  their  secrets ;  his  work  is  to  hang 

11  1  •  1-1  •       xxvi.  5-14 

the  earth  upon  nothmg,  to  support  the  mighty  waters  m 

the  flimsy  clouds,  to  divide  light  and  darkness  by  a  boundary  circle. 

Lo,  these  are  but  the  outskirts  of  his  ways; 

And  how  small  a  whisper  do  we  hear  of  him ! 

But  the  thunder  of  his  power  who  can  understand? 

The  Friends  have  persisted  in  ignoring  the  arguments  that  Job 
has  offered,  and  Job  can  only  fall  back  into  self-assertion,   xxvi.  1-4 

and 

As  God  liveth,  who  hath  taken  away  my  right;  xxvii.  1-6 

And  the  Almighty,  who  hath  vexed  my  soul; 

All  the  while  my  breath  is  in  me, 

And  the  spirit  of  God  is  in  my  nostrils : 
Surely  my  lips  shall  not  speak  unrighteousness, 
Neither  shall  my  tongue  utter  deceit. 

1  In  reference  to  the  rearrangement  of  the  speeches  at  this   point  sec  Job  in 
Literary  Index  (Appendix  I). 


IS  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Once    more,  and  for  the   last   time,  the  doctrine  of  unfailing 

xsTii.  7-  judgment  on  sin  is  to  be  asserted,  and  Zophar  com- 
*'^^^»*   mences: 

Let  mine  enemy  be  as  the  wicked  — 

His  long  experience  has  filled  him  with  instances  of  the  godless 
frustrated  in  their  hopes :  their  children  multiplied  for  the  sword, 
their  heaped-up  silver  di\nded  amongst  the  innocent,  and  them- 
selves swept  by  the  tempest  out  of  their  place.  To  Zophar  this 
confidence  in  the  unerring  stroke  of  doom  seems  the  ver)^  founda- 
tion of  ^^"isdom.  There  are  mines  out  of  which  may  be  dug  gold 
and  silver  and  precious  stones,  but  where  is  the  place  of  ^^'isdom  ? 

The  deep  saith.  It  is  not  in  me : 

And  the  sea  saitb.  It  is  not  with  me  : 

It  cannot  be  gotten  for  gold. 

Neither  shall  silver  be  weighed  I'or  the  price  thereof. 

God  only  is  the  source  of  it,  and  when  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  universe  he  inwrought  this  into  the  structure  of  his  world : 
that  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  his  judgments  on  evil  —  this  should 
be  Wisdom  and  Understanding. 

Job  is  gathering  himself  together  for  his  final  vindication.  But 
fi^st,  softly  to  himself,  he  meditates  upon  the  contrast  between 
then  and  now. 

Oh  that  I  were  as  in  the  months  of  old. 
As  in  the  days  when  God  watched  over  me; 
When  his  lamp  shined  upon  my  head. 
And  by  his  light  I  walked  through  darkness. 

In  the  rich  imagery  of  the  East  he  paints  a  prosperity  that  washed 
his  steps  in  butter ;  he  describes  the  hush  that  fell  upon  the 
assembly  of  the  great  when  he  advanced  to  join  them  ;  how  among 
the  people  every  ear  that  heard  him  blessed  him,  and  ever)-  eye 
that  saw  him  was  a  witness  to  the  deeds  of  kindness  by  which  he 
spread  happiness  around  him.  But  now  !  He  is  derided  by 
those  w^hose  fathers  were  not  to  be  ranked  with  the  dogs  of  his 


INTRODUCTION  -  19 

flock  ;  the  very  rabble  thrust  him  aside  as  he  walks.     And  —  worse 

than  all  — 

Thou  art  turned  to  be  cruel  to  me : 

With  the  might  of  thy  hand  thou  persecutest  me. 

But  before  friend  and  foe,  and  in  the  presence  of  God  himself, 
Job  stands  forth  to  make  solemn  vindication.     Towering   above 
the  seated  accusers,  he  waves  his  arm  in  the  full 
ritual  of  the  Oath  of  Clearing.     Article  by  article  Job's  vindication 

°  ■'  XXXI 

he  repudiates  the  lust  of  the  eye,  oppression  of  the 
weak,  failure  in  charity  to  the  poor  or  hospitality  to  the  stranger, 
secret  trust  in  gold  or  secret  worship  of  the  heavenly  host ;  if  there 
be  any  other  transgression  —  and  Job  passionately  longs  to  see  the 
indictment  of  an  adversary  —  he  makes  the  very  concealment  of 
it  a  fresh  sin.     Once  more  he  breaks  out : 

If  my  land  cry  out  against  me, 

And  the  furrows  thereof  weep  together; 

If  I  have  eaten  the  fruits  thereof  without  money, 

Or  have  caused  the  owners  thtieof  to  lose  their  life: 

Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat, 

And  cockle  instead  of  barley  ! 

Then,  with  a  wave  of  dismissal  —  "  The  words  of  Job  are  ended  " 
—  he  seats  himself  and  covers  his  face  with  his  robe ;  and  the 
Friends  understand  that  the  discussion  is  closed. 

Religious   tradition,   embodied   in  the   speeches  of  the    three 
Friends,  has  spent  its  energies  and  failed.     But  there  is  youth- 
ful  enthusiasm  represented  among  the   crowd   of  internosition  of 
spectators  round  the  ash-mound,  in  the  person  of  Eiihu 
Elihu,  of  the  great  family  of  Ram.     He  has  stood   ^^^" 
listening  with  indignation  in  his  heart ;  indignation  against  Job 
because  he  justified  himself  and  not  God,  and  indignation  against 
the  Friends  because  they  had  been  unable  to  si- 

xxxii .  6— xxxiii 

lence  such  presumption.    Elihu  now  breaks  through 

the  circle  and  ascends  the  ash-mound,  standing  respectful  but 


20  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

passionate  before  the  seated  elders.  He  had  said  that  days  must 
speak  and  multitude  of  years  show  wisdom  :  but  he  has  an  under- 
standing as  well  as  they ;  yea,  his  spirit  feels  like  wine  that  can  find 
no  vent  but  by  bursting  its  bottle.  Thus,  with  juvenile  profuse- 
ness,  he  pours  forth  some  fifty  lines  in  saying  that  he  is  about  to 
speak,  before  he  confronts  Job  —  who  had  longed  to  meet  God 
face  to  face  —  with  the  words  : 

Behold,  I  am  according  to  thy  wish,  in  God's  stead. 

He  thus  reaches  the  point  which  makes  his  contribution  to  the 

discussion,  —  a  facet  of  the  truth  which  his  generation  was  seeing 

a  little  more  clearly  than  the  generation  before  him.     It  may  be 

made  a  Third  Solution  of  the  Mystery :  Suffering. 

(Third  Solution)       .  u  u-  u     'n  ^  ? 

IS   one  oj   the  voices   by  which    God  warns  and 

restores  men.     He  describes  a  man  chastened  with  pain  upon  his 

bed  until  his  life  abhorreth  bread,  and  his  soul  the  daintiest  meat : 

If  there  be  with  him  an  angel, 
An  interpreter,  one  amcjng  a  thousand, 
To  shew  unto  man  what  is  right  for  him; 
Then  he  is  gracious  unto  him,  and  saith, 
"  Deliver  him  from  going  down  to  the  pit, 
I  have  found  a  ransom." 

An  idyllic  picture  follows  of  restored  purity  and  happy  penitence  ; 
and  Elihu  urges  this  view  upon  Job,  and  pauses  for  Job's  reply. 

But  Job  vouchsafes  no  reply ;  and  receives  the  new  light  with 
contemptuous  indifference. 

Disappointed  at  this  reception,  Elihu  turns  to  the  three  Friends 

—  as  wise  men  with  an  ear  to  try  words  —  and  hopes  to  take 

them  with  him,  and  all  men  of  understanding,  in  his 

Txxrr  ^ 

protest  against  this  Job,  who  drinketh  up  scorning  like 
water,  who  addeth  rebellion  unto  sin,  and  clappeth  his  hands 
against  God.  He  enlarges  upon  the  presumption  of  mankind 
and  the  judgments  with  which  it  is  overwhelmed,  and  looks  to 
the  three  Friends  for  assent. 


/A'  TR  OD  UC  TION  21 

But  the  three  Friends  make  no  sign ;  they  meet  their  youthful 
champion  with  chilling  silence. 

Slighted  on  both  sides,  Elihu,  like  Job,  is  driven  to  look  up- 
wards :  as  his  glance  sweeps  the  sky,  another  flood 

'-'  '  IXXV-XXXVU 

of  inspiration  comes  upon  him. 

Look  unto  the  Heavens,  and  see : 

he  cries,  alike  to  Job  and  to  his  companions.     Is  the  God  of  thgse 

heavens,  he  asks,  a  God  to  be  harmed  by  a  man's  sin,  or  benefited 

by  his  righteousness?     Thus,  "  fetching  his  knowledge  from  afar," 

he  makes  the  heavens  a  starting-point  for  a  fresh  vindication  of 

the  providence  that  brings  low  and  builds  up  again  mighty  kings, 

or  cuts  off"  whole  peoples  in  a  night.     A  rumble  of  _  . , 

'       ^  ®  Rise  of  the  Whirl- 

distant  thunder  recalls  him  to  his  text ;  and,  when   ^ind 

he  looks  up  a  second  time,  the  brilliant  sky  of  the  xxxvi.  22- 
land  of  Uz  has  begun  to  show  signs  of  change. 
Now  his  whole  discussion  of  providential  might  is  bound  up  with 
the  manifestations  of  power  that  are  being  exhibited  at  the  moment 
in  the  changing  heavens.  His  words  bring  before  us  the  small 
drops  of  water  and  the  spreading  clouds,  the  play  of  lightning  and 
the  noise  that  tells  of  God,  down  to  the  very  cattle  standing  expect- 
ant of  the  coming  storm.  When  a  nearer  burst  of  thunder  makes 
his  heart  tremble  and  move  out  of  its  place,  Ehhu  still  keeps  his 
eyes  fastened  upon  the  sky  :  he  finds  fresh  texts  in  the  roaring  voice 
of  the  heavens,  and  the  lightning  that  lightens  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth,  in  the  snow  intermingled  with  mighty  rain  as  the  icy  breath 
of  the  north  encounters  the  storm  out  of  the  chambers  of  the 
south,  in  the  thick  clouds  wearied  with  waterings,  and  their  delicate 
balancings  as  they  descend,  and  descend,  until  they  have  wrapped 
in  their  folds  speaker  and  hearers,  and  they  cannot  order  their 
speech  by  reason  of  the  darkness,  and  the  impetuous  eloquence  of 
Elihu  has  died  down  into  dread  : 

If  a  man  speak,  surely  he  shall  be  swallowed  up ! 
Now  the  whirlwind  is  upon  them  :  in  marvellous  wise  its  blasts 


22  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

seem  to  cleanse  the  niirky  darkness  into  order ;  flashes  of  un- 
earthly bright  out  of  the  dark  make  them  cast  their  eyes  down- 
ward ;  until  the  flashes  at  last  grow  together  into  one  terrible 
majesty  of  golden  splendour  in  the  northern  heart  of  the  storm, 
and  the  whirlwind  has  become  the 

VOICE  OF  GOD 

Divine  Interven-      Who  is  this  that  darkeneth  counsel 
tion  By  words  without  knowledge? 

xxxviii-xlii.  6         Gird  up  now  thy  loins  like  a  man; 

For  I  will  demand  of  thee,  and  declare  thou  unto  me. 

As  the  Voice  comes  out  of  the  storm  a  new  aspect  of  the  dis- 
cussion unfolds  itself.  The  perplexities  of  Job  and  his  Friends 
rested  upon  a  one-sided  view  that  confined  its  survey  to  Evil,  as 
if  it  alone  were  exceptional  and  unintelligible  ;  the  speech  attrib- 
uted to  the  Divine  Being  comes  to  restore  the  balance  by  taking 
a  more  comprehensive  survey.  It  may  be  reckoned  as  a  Fourth 
Solution  of  the  Problem  :  That  the  whole  universe 
is  an  unfathomed  Mystery,  in  which  the  Evil  is  not 
more  jnysterious  than  the  Good  and  the  Great.  The  idea  of  the 
whirlwind  is  maintained  throughout :  the  tone  of  overmastering 
might  —  so  often  mistaken  for  the  meaning  of  this  Theophany  — 
is  no  more  than  the  outward  form  in  which  the  words  of  God  are 
embodied ;  the  traditional  association  of  thunder  with  the  voice 
of  God  leading  our  poet  to  convey  the  speech  of  Deity  in  the 
form  of  short  sharp  interrogatories,  like  explosions  of  thunder, 
each  outburst  putting  some  startling  mystery  of  nature. 

Who  shut  up  the  sea  with  doors, 

When  it  brake  forth  and  issued  out  of  the  womb; 

When  I  made  the  cloud  the  garment  thereof, 

And  thick  darkness  a  swaddling  band  for  it, 

And  prescribed  for  it  my  decree, 

And  set  bars  and  doors, 

And  said,  "  Hitherto  shall  thou  come,  but  no  further; 

And  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed  "  ? 


INTRODUCTION  23 

Have  the  gates  of  death  been  revealed  unto  thee, 

Or  hast  thou  seen  the  gates  of  the  shadow  of  Death? 

Where  is  the  way  to  the  dwelling  of  light, 

And  as  for  darkness,  where  is  the  place  thereof? 

Hath  the  rain  a  father? 

Or  who  hath  begotten  the  drops  of  dew? 
Out  of  whose  womb  came  the  ice? 

And  the  hoary  frost  of  heaven,  who  hath  gendered  it? 

There  is  no  pause  in  the  succession  of  wonders  :  the  wonder  of 
the  lioness  hunting  her  prey ;  of  the  young  ravens  crying  to  God 
for  their  food ;  the  wonder  of  the  wild  goats  bringing  forth  their 
young  ;  the  wonder  of  the  wild  ass  ranging  loose  in  the  wilderness, 
and  the  ox  abiding  patiently  by  his  crib ;  the  wonder  of  the 
ostrich,  foolish  over  her  young  because  God  has  deprived  her  of 
wisdom,  glorious  in  flight,  putting  to  scorn  the  horse  and  his 
rider ;  the  wonder  of  the  war-horse  pawing  in  the  valley  and 
rejoicing  in  his  strength,  swallowing  the  ground  in  fierceness  and 
rage  amid  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting.  There 
is  a  momentary  lull  in  the  storm,  when  Job's  voice  is  heard  in 
awe-struck  humility  : 

Once  have  I  spoken,  and  I  will  not  answer : 
Yea  twice,  but  I  will  proceed  no  further. 

Then  again  the  swirl  of  mystery  rages  around  :  the  Voice  tells  of 
Behemoth,  with  bones  of  brass  and  limbs  of  iron,  his  larder  a 
mountain  and  a  jungle  his  bower,  watching  unconcernedly  the 
swelling  of  the  boisterous  waterfloods  ;  or  of  Leviathan  himself, 
panoplied  against  the  hook  of  the  fisher  or  snare  of  the  fowler, 
and  scorning  even  the  hunter's  spear  and  the  arrows  of  the  war- 
rior, flashing  light  and  breathing  smoke  as  he  goes,  terror  dancing 
before  him,  and  ocean  turning  hoary  in  his  wake. 

At  last  the  storm  begins  to  abate,  and  Job  is  able  to  make  his 
submission.  He  knows  that  God  is  all-powerful,  and  that  no 
purpose  of  his  can  be  restrained. 


24  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

—  "  Who  is  this  that  hideth  counsel  without  knowledge?  "  — 

comes  like  an  echoing  rumble  of  the  retiring  storm.  Job  admits 
the  charge  :  he  has  uttered  that  which  he  understood  not,  and 
meddled  in  things  too  high  for  him. 

—  "I  will  demand  of  thee,  and  declare  thou  unto  me  "  — 

again  sounds  forth,  like  a  more  distant  echo  of  the  tempest.  Job 
comprehends  his  whole  submission  in  one  utterance. 

I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear; 
But  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee, 
Wherefore  I  abhor  myself,  and  repent 
In  dust  and  ashes. 

Then  the  storm  has  entirely  cleared  away.     And  with  it  the 

dramatic  poem  has  given  place  to  the  frame  of  story :  which 

resumes  to  relate  how,  when  Job  had  thus  spoken, 

The  story  Closes     j^  ^  ^j^^  Lord  was  kindled  against  the 

xlii.  7-17  ^  ° 

three  Friends,  because  they  had  not  said  of  Him 
the  thing  that  was  right  as  His  servant  Job  had.  Thus  the  Epi- 
logue furnishes  a  Fifth  Solution  :   the  proper  attitude  of  mind 

towards   the  Mystery  of  Human  Suffering:    that 

(Fifth  Solution)         ,  ^   .  ,       ^    ;  ,         ,  .   ,  ,  ,  , 

the  strong  faith  of  Job,  which  could  even  reproach 

God  as  a  friend  reproaches  a  friend,  was  more  acceptable  to  Him 

than  the  servile  adoration  which  sought  to  twist  the  truth  in  order 

to  magnify  God.     It  only  remains  to  tell  how  the  Lord  turned  the 

captivity  of  Job,  and  his  wealth  and  prosperity  returned  in  greater 

measure  than  before  ;  and  he  begat  sons  and  daughters,  and  saw 

his  sons'  sons  to  the  fourth  generation.     So  Job  died,  being  old 

and  full  of  years. 


INTRODUCTION  25 


II 

Such  is  the  Book  of  Job  presented  as  a  piece  of  Hterature. 
The  questions  of  Theology  or  historic  criticism  that  it  suggests 
are  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  work.     Our     . 
immediate  concern  is  with  the  various   kinds   of  in  the  Book  of 
Hterary   interest    which    have    touched   us   as   we   J"** 
have  traversed  this  monument  of  ancient  Hterature. 

The  dominant  impression  is  that  of  a  magnificent  drama.  No 
element  of  dramatic  effect  is  wanting ;  and  that  which  we  might 
least  have  expected,  the  scenic  effect,  is  especially  ^ 
impressive.  The  great  ash-mound  outside  an  an-  interest 
cient  village  or  town  makes  a  stage  just  suited  for  o^  Background 
the  single  scene  —  and  that  an  open-air  scene  —  to  which  a  Greek 
tragedy  would  be  confined.  And  resemblance  to  a  Greek  drama 
is  further  maintained  by  the  crowd  of  spectators  who  stand  round 
this  ash-mound  like  a  silent  Chorus;  —  unless,  indeed,  we  are  to 
consider  that  their  sentiments  are  conveyed  by  Elihu  as  Chorus- 
Leader,  When  we  reach  the  crisis  of  the  poem  we  are  able  to 
see  what  advantage  a  drama  addressed  purely  to  the  imagination 
may  have  over  plays  intended  for  the  theatre.  No  stage  machin- 
ery could  possibly  realise  the  changes  of  sky  and  atmosphere 
which  in  Job  make  a  dramatic  background  for  the  approach  of 
Deity.  It  is  true  that  the  original  poem  does  not  describe  these 
changes,  as  I  have  done,  in  straightforward  narrative.  But  every 
scholar  is  aware  that  the  '  stage  directions '  of  modern  plays  are 
wanting  in  the  dramas  of  antiquity  :  whatever  variations  of  move- 
ment and  surroundings  these  involve  have  to  be  collected  from  the 
words  of  the  personages  who  take  part  in  the  dialogue.  And  in 
the  transformation  traced  above,  from  a  day  of  brilliant  sunshine 
to  a  thunderstorm,  and  yet  further  to  a  supernatural  apparition, 
every  detail  of  change  is  implied  in  the  words  of  Elihu.  We 
watch  the  changing  scene  through  the  eyes  of  those  who  are  in 
the  midst  of  it. 


26  LITERARY  STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

Interest  of  character  abounds  in  the  poem.     I  must  confess  I 

cannot  follow  the  subtle  differences  which  some  commentators  see 

between  the  characters  of  the  three  Friends.     It 
of  Character 

is  easy  to  recognise  in  Eliphaz  a  stately  personage 

with  a  wider  range  of  thought  than  his  colleagues.  But  Bildad 
and  Zophar  leave  different  impressions  on  different  readers.  To 
me  Bildad  seems  a  touch  more  blunt  in  his  manner  than  the  rest. 
Of  Zophar  I  would  only  say  that  the  speeches  assigned  him  fit 
well  with  the  suggestion  of  his  being  a  generation  older  than  the 
other  personages  of  the  poem  ;  though  of  course  the 
words  of  Eliphaz  which  claim  such  a  personage  as  on 
his  side  need  not  necessarily  refer  to  anyone  present.  But  what- 
ever may  be  thought  about  the  individualities  of  the  Friends,  no 
one  can  miss  the  contrast  between  the  whole  group  and  Job ; 
between  the  interest  of  static  character  in  various  modifications 
of  conformity  to  current  ideals,  and  the  interest  of  a  dynamic  per- 
sonality like  that  of  Job,  which  can  look  back  to  a  realisation  of 
the  perfection  his  friends  describe,  and  can  yet  at  the  call  of  cir- 
cumstances fling  his  former  beliefs  to  the  winds,  and  probe  pas- 
sionately among  the  mysteries  of  providence  for  new  conceptions 
of  divine  rule.  And  the  welcome  addition  to  the  poem  of  Elihu 
adds  the  ever  fresh  interest  of  youth  in  contrast  with  age.  In  the 
impetuous  self-confidence  of  this  personage,  his  flowing  yet  jejune 
eloquence,  and  in  the  chilling  reception  it  meets  alike  from  Job 
and  Job's  adversaries,  we  have  youth  presented  from  the  one  side. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  youth  has  dramatic  justice  done  to  it 
when  we  find  Elihu's  heart  beating  responsive  to  every  change 
of  the  changing  heavens,  and  eagerly  drinking  in  the  accumulat- 
ing terrors  of  the  storm,  until  his  wild  speech  stops  only  before 
the  voice  of  God. 

But  scenery  and  character  might  almost  be  called  secondary 

elements  of  drama :  its  essence  lies  in  action.     The  whole  world 

of  literature  hardly  contains   a   more    remarkable 

and  of  Movement       ....  i  i         i  c 

piece  of  dramatic  movement  than  the  changes  of 
position  taken  up  by  Job  in  tlie  course  of  his  dialogue  with  the 


INTRODUCTION  27 

Friends.  Before  it  commenced  Job  had  met  his  ruin  with  that 
ideal  patience  which  has  forever  been  associated  with  his  name. 
At  last  we  find  just  a  shadow  of  resistance  in  his  plaintive  enquiry, 
why  life  should  be  forced  upon  the  miserable.  His  friends  fasten 
upon  this,  and  make  it  a  starting-point  for  the  discussion  in  which 
they  urge  that  the  sufferer  is  a  sinner.  Almost  in  an  instant  the 
patient  Job  is  transformed  into  an  angry  rebel,  tearing  to  shreds 
optimist  views  of  righteous  providence,  and,  with  the  passion  of  a 
Titan,  painting  God  as  an  Irresponsible  Omnipotence  that  delights 
to  put  righteousness  and  wickedness  on  an  equality  of  helplessness 
to  resist  Him.  The  Friends  continue  their  pressure,  and  Job  is 
driven  to  appeal  to  God  against  their  misconstruction ;  more  and 
more  as  the  action  advances  Job  is  led  to  rest  his  hopes  of  vindi- 
cation on  the  Being  he  began  by  maligning.  At  last  he  is  found 
to  have  traversed  a  circle  :  and  the  same  God  whom,  in  the  ninth 
chapter,  he  had  accused  of  exercising  judgment  only  to  show  his 
omnipotence,  he  contrasts  with  the  Friends  in  the  twenty-third 
chapter  as  a  judge  who  would  not  contend  with  him  in  the  great- 
ness of  his  power.  When  the  climax  of  the  Theophany  comes, 
this  movement  of  the  drama  is  carried  forward  into  a  double  sur- 
prise. Job  had  felt  that  if  only  he  could  find  his  way  into  the 
presence  of  God  his  cause  would  be  secure.  His  prayer  is  strangely 
granted,  and  with  what  result? 

I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear; 
But  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee, 
Wherefore  I  abhor  myself,  and  repent 
In  dust  and  ashes. 

Yet  was  Job's  first  thought  a  mistake  ?  The  answer  is  a  second 
surprise.  While  the  tempest  lasts  the  Theophany  appears  wholly 
directed  against  Job.  But  when  the  storm  has  cleared  it  is  found 
to  be  the  adversaries  who  have  incurred  the  wrath  of  God,  and  his 
servant  Job  has  said  of  him  the  thing  that  is  right.  The  deep 
moral  significance  of  these  various  presentations  of  Deity  need 
not  make  us  overlook  the  dramatic  beauty  in  the  transition  from 
one  to  another. 


28  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

The  dialogue  in  Job  is  introduced  and  concluded  by  a  narrative 

story,  and  to  dramatic  effect  must  be  added  epic  :  I  use  this  word 

without  meaning  to  convey  any  judgment  on  the 
Epic  Interest  ,  °    ,       .      .  /  ^    ,       , 

question  whether  the  mcidents  of  the  book  are  to 

be  regarded  as  imaginary  or  as  historically  true.  The  narrative  is 
one  of  grand  simplicity,  like  the  epics  of  antiquity.  A  few  touches 
create  for  us  a  whole  picture  of  life  and  scheme  of  society.  The 
first  note  struck  is  that  of  perfection ;  and  the  life  of  which  Job 
is  declared  the  perfect  type  is  that  of  a  simple  pastoral  age.  His 
substance  of  cattle  is  given  in  ideal  figures ;  and  he  is  called  the 
greatest  of  all  the  children  of  the  east.  It  is  an  age  in  which  the 
'  state '  is  not  yet  born,  but  family  life  is  pictured  on  the  highest 
scale.  The  great  seasons  which  break  the  monotony  of  such 
patriarchal  existence  are  rounds  of  festal  gatherings  among  the 
seven  sons  of  Job,  each  receiving  on  his  day  with  a  regularity 
never  broken ;  the  sons  moreover  invite  their  sisters,  and  ,so 
women's  society  raises  a  revel  into  a  dignified  ceremonial.  Such 
interchange  of  festivity  would  represent  the  highest  ordinary  ideals 
of  the  age.  But  behind  this,  Job,  who  lives  in  a  wider  world,  has 
his  high  day  of  religious  devotion,  rising  early  in  the  morning  to 
sanctify  his  children  against  possible  sin. 

In  an  instant,  without  any  connecting  link  or  wordy  preparation, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  old  epics  which  have  the  doings  of  gods 
and  men  alike  in  their  grasp,  we  are  transported  to  the  heavenly 
counterpart  of  such  earthly  festivities.  Heaven  too  has  its  high 
day  on  which  the  sons  of  God  gather  together  from  their  several 
provinces ;  in  the  description  of  two  such  assemblies  the  recur- 
rence of  identical  phrases  conveys  the  notion  of  ritual  and  cere- 
monial observance.  We  reach  a  point  in  the  story  at  which  the 
utmost  care  is  needed  to  guard  against  a  misconception  of  the 
whole  incident.  Among  the  sons  of  God,  it  is 
7^f  ^^^"^  °*        said,  comes  '  The  Satan.'    It  is  best  to  use  the  article 

Job) 

and  speak  of  '  The  Satan,'  or  as  the  margin  gives 
it,  '  The  Adversary  ' :  that  is,  the  Adversary  of  the  Saints.  Else- 
where in  Scripture  the  title  of  this  office  has  become  the  name  of 


IN  TR  OD  UC  TION  29 

a  personage  —  the  Adversary  of  God,  or  *  Satan.' ^  But  here  (as 
in  a  similar  passage  of  ZechariaK)  the  Satan  is  an  ofificial 
of  the  Court  of  Heaven.  There  is  nothing  in  his  recep-  ^^?^^.' 
tion  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other  sons  of  God ;  as 
they  may  come  from  sun  or  moon  or  other  parts  of  the  Uni- 
verse, so  the  Satan  is  the  Inspector  of  Earth,  and  describes  his 
occupation  as  "  going  to  and  fro  in  the  earth,  and  walking  up  and 
down  in  it."  When  once  the  associations  with  the  other  '  Satan  ' 
are  laid  aside,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  dealings  of  this  per- 
sonage with  Job  there  is  no  malignity ;  he  simply  questions  where 
others  accept,  and  in  an  inspector  such  distrust  is  a  virtue.  The 
Roman  Church  has  exactly  caught  this  conception  in  its  'Advoca- 
tus  Diaboli ' :  such  an  advocate  may  be  in  fact  a  pious  and  kindly 
ecclesiastic,  but  he  has  the  function  assigned  him  of  searching  out 
all  possible  evil  that  can  be  alleged  against  a  candidate  for  canoni- 
sation, lest  the  honours  of  the  Church  might  be  given  without  due 
enquiry.  In  the  present  case  the  Satan  merely  points  out  possible 
weaknesses  in  Job,  and  a  means  of  testing  them.  The  Court  of 
Heaven  sanctions  the  '  experiment '  :  —  the  word  '  experiment '  has 
only  to  be  changed  into  its  equivalent  'probation'  for  the  whole 
proceeding  to  be  brought  within  accepted  notions  of  divine  gov- 
ernment. 

Epic  power  is  again  exhibited  in  the  description  of  the  mode  in 
which  this  experiment  is  carried  out.  Slow  history  brings  about 
results  by  what  means  are  in  its  power,  with  much  of  makeshift, 
and  accidents  which  mar  the  symmetry  of  events.  But  epic 
poetry  can  make  its  action  harmonious  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  a 
conspiracy  of  heaven  and  earth  that  compasses  Job's  destruction. 
The  Sabeans  take  his  oxen,  the  sky  rains  fire  upon  the  sheep,  the 

1  Bishop  Bickersteth  in  his  epic  poem  Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever  ingeniously 
harmonises  these  two  conceptions  of  Satan.  He  makes  his  Lucifer  Guardian  Spirit 
of  Earth  and  Man  :  as  part  of  his  office  he  tempts  Adam  :  then  flies  to  Heaven  to  be 
fallen  Man's  accuser :  gradually  the  spirit  in  which  he  has  executed  his  office 
intensifies  and  makes  more  and  more  pronounced  his  own  fall,  until  he  at  last  sinks 
into  an  open  Adversary  of  God.  See  the  poem,  books  iv-vi,  and  the  bishop's  de- 
fence of  this  view  in  the  St.  yames's  Sermons. 


30  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Chaldeans  carry  away  the  camels,  and  the  winds  of  the  wilderness 
overwhelm  Job's  children  :  while  the  separate  destructions  are 
worked  into  a  concerto  of  ruin  by  the  •recurrence  of  the  mes- 
senger's wail  — 

I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee. 

It  is  an  ideally  grand  shock.  But  at  this  stage  Job's  character  is 
epic,  and  the  shock  is  met  by  an  ideal  grandeur  of  acceptance. 
One  by  one  the  customary  gestures  of  distress  are  exhibited,  and 
then  slowly  succeed  the  words  which  have  become  the  world's 
formulary  for  the  emotion  of  bereavement.  They  are  sublime 
words,  that  first  proclaim  simply  the  essential  manhood  to  which 
the  whole  of  life  is  but  an  accessory,  and  then  throw  over  pious 
submission  a  grace  of  oriental  courtesy  that  would  make  the 
resumption  of  a  gift  an  occasion  for  remembering  the  giver. 

Naked  came  I  out  of  my  mother's  womb, 
And  naked  shall  I  return  thither ! 

The  Lord  gave, 
And  the  Lord  hath  taken  away : 
Blessed  be  the  Name  of  the  Lord ! 

Our  epic  plot  intensifies,  and  when  the  second  assembly  in 
heaven  is  held,  God  and  the  Satan  concur  in  honouring  Job's  con- 
stancy by  severer  tests.  In  what  follows  there  is  no  realistic 
description  ;  epic  poetry  can  act  by  reticence,  and  a  word  or  two 
are  sufficient  to  convey  the  picture  of  Job  shrinking  away  silent 
and  unclean  from  among  his  fellows,  with  a  patience  terrible  to 
look  upon ;  until  the  silence  is  broken  by  a  second  of  those 
utterances  of  liis  which  are  so  colossal  in  their  simplicity.  The 
oriental  nomad  life  has  two  ideals  specially  its  own.  One  is  the 
solemn  giving  and  receiving  of  gifts.  The  other  is  an  instinct  of 
authority  that  knows  no  bounds  to  its  submission  :  an  oriental 
seems  to  feel  a  pride  in  self-prostration  before  his  natural  lord. 
Both  ideals  are  united  in  Job's  answer  to  his  wife's  murmur  : 

What?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hands  of  God  and 
shall  we  not  receive  evil? 


INTR  OD  UC  riON  31 

The  simple  power  of  epic  poetry  has  raised  us  to  a  high  plane 

of  thought  and  feeling  :  upon  that  plane  the  action  of  the  poem  is 

to  move  with  a  passionateness    that  is  proper  to 

drama.     But  there  is  a  transition    stage   between  The  Curse  a  Lyric 

°  Poem 

the  one  and  the  other  in  that  portion  of  the  book 

entitled  '  Job's  Curse.'     This  is  not  narrative,  and  so  cannot  be 

epic ;  it  is  clearly  distinct  from  the  dramatic  poetry  to  which  it  is 

a  starting-point.     Examination  of  it  shows  at  once  the   musical 

elaboration  and  accumulation  of  musings  on  a  situation  or  thought 

which  we  associate  with  lyric  poetry.     The  Curse  is  a  counterpart 

to  such  English  lyrics  as  Wordsworth's  Intimations  of  Immortality 

or  Gray's  Bard.     I  subjoin  the  whole  here,  that  it  may  be  read 

in  this  connection  as  a  separate  lyric  :  —  an  Elegy  of  a  Broken 

Heart. 


Let  the  day  perish  wherein  I  was  born; 

And  the  night  which  said,  There  is  a  man  child  conceived  \ 

Let  that  day  be  darkness; 

Let  not  God  regard  it  from  above, 

Neither  let  the  light  shine  upon  it ! 

Let  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death  claim  it  for  their  own; 

Let  a  cloud  dwell  upon  it; 

Let  all  that  maketh  black  the  day  terrify  it ! 

As  for  that  night,  let  thick  darkness  seize  upon  it; 

Let  it  not  rejoice  among  the  days  of  the  year; 

Let  it  not  come  into  the  number  of  the  months ! 

Lo,  let  that  night  be  barren ; 

Let  no  joyful  voice  come  therein  ! 

Let  them  curse  it  that  curse  the  day, 

Who  are  ready  to  rouse  up  leviathan ! 

Let  the  stars  of  the  twilight  thereof  be  dark  ! 

I-et  it  look  for  light,  but  have  none; 

Neither  let  it  behold  the  eyelids  of  the  morning : 

Because  it  shut  not  up  the  doors  of  my  mother's  womb, 
Nor  hid  trouble  from  mine  eyes  ! 


32  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Why  died  I  not  from  the  womb? 

Why  did  I  not  give  up  the  ghost  when  I  came  out  of  the  belly? 
Why  did  the  knees  receive  me? 

Or  why  the  breasts,  that  I  should  suck? 
For  now  should  I  have  lien  down  and  been  quiet; 
I  should  have  slept;    then  had  I  been  at  rest, 

With  kings  and  counsellors  of  the  earth, 

Which  built  solitary  piles  for  themselves; 

Or  with  princes  that  had  gold. 

Who  filled  their  houses  with  silver; 
Or  as  an  hidden  untimely  birth  I  had  not  been; 
As  infants  which  never  saw  light. 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling; 

And  there  the  weary  be  at  rest. 

There  the  prisoners  are  at  ease  together; 

They  hear  not  the  voice  of  the  taskmaster. 

The  small  and  great  are  there; 

And  the  servant  is  free  from  his  master. 

Wherefore  is  light  given  to  him  that  is  in  misery, 
And  life  unto  the  bitter  in  soul? 

Which  long  for  death,  but  it  cometh  not; 

And  dig  for  it  more  than  for  hid  treasures; 

Which  rejoice  exceedingly, 

And  are  glad  when  they  can  find  the  grave. 
Why  is  light  given  to  a  man  whose  way  is  hid. 
And  whom  God  hath  hedged  in? 

For  my  sighing  cometh  before  I  eat. 

And  my  roarings  are  poured  out  like  water. 

For  the  thing  which  I  fear  cometh  upon  me. 

And  that  which  I  am  afraid  of  cometh  unto  me. 

I  am  not  at  ease. 

Neither  am  I  quiet, 

Neither  have  I  rest; 

But  trouble  cometh. 

Our  result  then  so  far  is  that  the  Book  of  Job  contains  specimens 
of  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  composition  ;  all  the  three  main 
elements  of  poetry  find  a  representation  in  it,  and  a  representation 


INTK  OD  UCTION  33 

of  the  most  impressive  kind.     I  pass  now  to  those  departments 

of  literature  which  are   usually  considered  to  be 

furthest  removed    from  poetry,  —  philosophy  and   philosophy 

science  :  philosophy  that  seeks  to  find  a  meaning 

underlying  life  as  a  whole,  and  science  that  observes  in  detail  and 

arranges  its  observations. 

The  whole  work  is  a  philosophical  discussion  dramatised.     The 
subject  discussed  is  the  mystery  of  human  suffering,   various  Attitudes 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  righteous  government  of  to  the  problem 
the  world  :    this  is  one  of  the  stock  questions  of 
philosophy.     Each  section  of  the  book  is  the  representation  of  a 
different  philosophical  attitude  to  this  question. 

The  three  Friends  present  a  cut  and  dried  theory  of  suffering  — 
that  it  is  always  penal.     They  are  brought  before 
us   as   behaving   in  the  usual   fashion   of  persons   _.^   ^^^  ^' 
finally   committed    to   a   theory :    they   pour    out 
stores  of  facts  that  make  for  their  view,  they  ignore  and  refuse  to 
examine  facts  that  tell  against  it,  and  they  hint  moral  obliquity  as 
the  real  explanation  of  refusal  to  concur  in  their 
doctrine.     Ehhu  introduces  the  same  theory  modi-   mL^gg^  ^"'^ 
fied  and  corrected  to  date  ;  with  him  suffering  is 
punishment  for  sin,  but  that  special  kind  of  punishment  which  is 
corrective  in  character.     He  accordingly  stands  for  a  philosophic 
school  of  the  second  generation ;  and  we  are  not  surprised  to  find 
him  maintaining   his   position  with  as  much  inflexibility  as  the 
Friends  have  shown,  and  at  the  same  time  magnifying  his  slight 
difference  from  them,  and  appearing  no  less  an  adversary  to  the 
Friends  than  to  Job  himself. 

Beware  lest  ye  say,  "  We  have  found  wisdom; 
God  may  vanquish  him,  not  man  "  : 
For  he  hath  not  directed  his  words  against  me; 
Neither  will  I  answer  him  with  your  speeches. 

At  the  furthest  remove  from  these  is  found  Job,  who  takes  a 
negative  attitude,  shattering  other  theories  but  providing  none  of 


34  LITERARY  STUDY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

his  own.  Of  course  no  one  will  understand  Job  really  to  accept 
what  some  of  his  words  imply,  as  where  he  sees  in 
job^s  Negative  q^j  ^^  omnipotence  that  judges  only  to  display 
power.  But  these  wild  words  are  not  out  of  place 
as  a  poetically  strong  representation  of  the  perplexities  that  en- 
counter one  who  would  explain  providential  action.  Job  simply 
cannot  solve  these  perplexities ;  he  trusts  in  a  divine  vindication 
at  some  time,  but  meanwhile  can  only  pronounce  the  problem  of 
life  insoluble.  This  is  distinctly  a  philosophic  attitude  :  it  is  noth- 
ing but  the  famous  epoche,  or  suspension  of  mind,  which  from  the 
time  of  Socrates  has  been  recognised  as  a  natural  tone  of  mind 
for  an  enquirer.  Of  course  there  is  a  vast  difference  between 
the  cold  brightness  of  Plato's  dialogues  and  the  heated  debate  in 
Job;  the  Hebrew  poem  is  not  the  discussion  in  the  Porch  or 
Garden,  but  represents  philosophy  as  it  is  talked  in  the  school 
of  affliction.     Job  represents  the  epoche  in  a  passion. 

Yet  another  philosophical  position  is  embodied  in  the  Divine 
Intervention.      As  I   have  suggested  above,  this  portion  of  the 

^.  .     ,  ^  poem  has  been  often  misunderstood.     It  has  been 

Divine  Interven-     v 

tion:  Reference  to  assumed,  not  unnaturally,  that  the  Divine  Inter- 
a  wider  category  ^^g^tion  —  like  the  Deiis  ex  machind  of  the  Greek 
drama  —  must  be  a  final  settlement  of  the  questions  in  dispute. 
When  the  speeches  attributed  to  God  are  examined  in  this  light 
they  are  found  to  be  no  settlement  at  all,  or,  what  were  worse 
than  any  settlement,  an  indignant  denial  of  man's  right  to  ques- 
tion. But  such  interpretations  overlook  one  important  considera- 
tion :  that  in  the  epilogue  Job  is  pronounced  by  the  Lord  to  have 
said  of  him  the  thing  that  is  right,  while  Job's  Friends,  who  main- 
tained the  wickedness  of  questioning,  are  declared  to  have  incurred 
the  Divine  anger.  The  interpretation  involves  a  double  mistake. 
On  the  one  hand  the  Divine  Intervention  is  not  a  settlement  of 
the  matter  in  dispute  ;  at  the  end  of  the  poem  the  problem  of 
human  suffering  remains  a  mystery.  But  this  section  of  the  work, 
like  others,  is  a  distinct  contribution  towards  a  solution.  In  esti- 
mating what  that  contribution  is  a  second  mistake  must  be  avoided, 


INTRODUCTION  35 

by  which  form  and  substance  have  been  confused.  The  tone  of 
scorn  which  rings  through  the  sentences  of  the  Divine  utterance 
must,  as  I  have  said  above,  be  considered  part  of  the  dramatic 
form  thrown  over  the  discussion;  the  poet  has  conceived  the 
thunder  tone  to  be  the  proper  embodiment  for  the  Divine  voice, 
and  the  explosive  interrogatories  of  which  the  speeches  are  com- 
posed are  just  as  much  a  portion  of  this  dramatic  setting  as  the 
signs  of  a  rising  tempest  which  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  Ehhu. 
The  whole  is  introduced  with  the  explanation:  "The  Lord 
answered  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind."  But  when  we  go  below 
this  outer  form,  and  enquire  what  is  the  general  drift  of  the 
Divine  utterance  as  a  whole,  we  find,  as  I  have  said  before,  that 
its  effect  is  to  widen  the  field  of  discussion.  Job  has  fastened  his 
attention  simply  upon  Evil,  and  successfully  maintained  its  inex- 
plicableness  against  his  friends.  The  Divine  Intervention  brings 
out  that  the  Good  and  the  Great,  all  that  men  instinctively 
admire  in  the  universe,  is  just  as  inexplicable  as  Evil.  Now  this 
is  distinctly  a  contribution  towards  the  solution  of  the  problem ; 
in  philosophic  terms,  it  has  included  the  matter  under  discussion 
in  a  wider  category,  and  this  represents  a  stage  of  philosophic 
advance.  Moreover,  it  implies  consolation  to  the  human  sufferer 
as  well  as  progress  to  the  discussion.  Job  had  met  loss  and  pain 
without  a  murmur ;  he  broke  down  when  long  musing  made  him 
realise  the  isolation  his  ruin  had  brought  him,  and  how  he  was  an 
outcast  from  intelligible  law.  He  recovers  his  self-control  when 
he  is  led  to  feel  that  his  burden  is  only  part  of  the  world-mystery 
of  Good  and  Evil,  for  the  solution  of  which  all  time  is  too  short. 

Two  sections  of  the  work  have  yet  to  be  considered  in  the 
present  connection,  the  prologue  and  the  epilogue.     From   the 
side  of  philosophy  no  part   of  Job   is   more   im-  ^^^^^^^ .  p^ac. 
portant  than  the  brief  epilogue.     Other   sections  ticai  bearings  of 
suggest  distinct   solutions  of  the   problem   under  ^^^  question 
discussion.     But  when  a  question  is  so  wide  as  to  admit  of  no 
final  settlement,  but  only  of  tentative  treatment,  philosophy  can 
have  no  niore  important  task  than  to  discover  a  practical  attitude 


36  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE   BIBLE 

which  we  may  assume  towards  it  while  advancing  slowly  towards 
theoretic  knowledge.  This  is  what  the  epilogue  does  in  its  pro- 
nouncement that  Job  has  been  right  and  his  friends  wrong.  As 
suggested  above,  this  can  have  no  other  meaning  than  to  imply 
that  the  bold  faith  of  a  Job,  which  could  reproach  his  God  as 
friend  reproaches  friend  where  the  Divine  dealings  seemed  unjust, 
was,  though  founded  on  ignorance,  more  acceptable  to  that  God 
than  the  servile  adoration  which  sought  to  twist  facts  in  order  to 
magnify  His  name.  The  deep  significance  of  such  a  pronounce- 
ment  must  be  welcomed  by  every  school  of  thought ;  it  for  ever 
stamps  the  God  of  the  Bible  as  a  God  on  the  side  of  enquiry. 

But  before  this  principle  has  been  laid  down  in  the  epilogue, 
before  Job  and  his  friefids  have  commenced  to  discuss  the  mys- 
tery of  suffering,  another  explanation  of  that  mys- 

Prologue:  Specu-  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,         •        , 

lationuponaTran-  tery  has  been  suggested  to  our  thoughts  m  the 
scendentai  Expia-  prologue.  When  we  are  made  to  see  the  Powers 
of  Heaven  discussing  the  character  of  Job  as  if  it 
were  an  item  in  which  the  welfare  of  the  universe  was  concerned, 
and  contriving  visitations  of  suffering  as  means  of  testing  whether 
the  character  be  really  all  that  it  seems  to  be,  it  is  impossible  for 
our  minds  not  to  generalise,  and  wonder  whether  large  part  of  the 
visible  suffering  in  the  actual  world  be  not  a  probationary  visita- 
tion of  this  nature.  Here  then  there  is  another  solution  presented  : 
how  is  the  treatment  to  be  classified  from  our  immediate  point  of 
view?  The  thinker  has  other  weapons  besides  philosophic  dis- 
cussion. Philosophy  deals  with  that  which  can  be  known  by  its 
own  methods ;  but  the  thinker  may  recognise  a  region  outside 
this,  which  therefore  from  the  philosophic  point  of  view  is  the 
unknowable,  which  may  nevertheless  have  influences  operating 
upon  the  region  of  what  is  known.  In  reference  to  such  a  region 
he  will  not  employ  the  method  of  discussion,  but  rather  the  form 
of  philosophic  suggestion  that  has  come  to  be  called  'speculation.' 
The  prologue  to  Job  may  be  regarded  as  giving  the  authority  of 
Holy  Writ  to  reverent  speculation  upon  the  higher  mysteries. 
No  doubt  here  difference  of  interpretation  comes  in.     Those  who 


INTRODUCTION  37 

consider  that  the  first  two  chapters  of  Job  represent  an  historic 
fact — incidents  which  actually  happened  —  will  not  use  the  word 
'  speculation  ' :  to  them  this  prologue  will  be  the  final  settlement 
of  the  whole  question.  But  the  great  majority  of  readers  will 
take  these  chapters  to  be  part  of  the  parable  into  which  the  his- 
tory of  Job  has  been  worked  up  ;  the  incidents  in  heaven,  like  the 
incidents  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  they  will  understand  to  be  spirit- 
ually imagined,  not  historically  narrated.  And  these  will  recognise 
that  the  prologue  gives  completeness  to  the  Book  of  Job  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  philosophy  ;  the  problem  of  human  suffer- 
ing, which  has  in  other  parts  of  the  book  been  treated  by  theory 
and  theory  modified,  by  negative  positions  and  reference  to  a 
wider  category,  and  even  by  pronouncement  upon  its  practical 
bearings,  has  a  further  illumination  cast  upon  it  by  a  speculation 
which  refers  the  origin  of  suffering  to  the  mysteries  of  the  super- 
natural world. 

I  have  spoken  of  science  as  well  as  philosophy.     Science  ob- 
serves nature  and  life  :  observation  of  nature  is  the 

Interest  of 
special  work  of  modern  science,  antiquity  turned   science: 

its  reflection  chiefly  on  human  life.     It  is  hardly  The  Land  Ques- 
necessary  to   point   out   that   proverb-like  reflec- 
tions on  society  and  life  form  large  part  of  the  material  out  of 
which  the  dialogue  in  Job  is  constructed.     I  wiU  be  content  with 
a  single  one  of  the  more  extended  illustrations.     It  is  remarkable 
that  the  whole  course  of  what  the   most  modern  thought  calls 
'  the  land  question '  is   sketched  in  a  single  chapter  of 
Job.     The  patriarch   is    describing  what  seems  to  him 
the  misgovernment  of  the  world.    He  commences  with  the  en- 
croachments of  private  ownership  upon  the  common  land  : 

There  are  that  remove  the  landmarks.  ...  2,  4 

They  turn  the  needy  out  of  the  way. 

There  is  consequently  the  formation  of  a  class  of  the  poor,  who 
are  either  driven  to  the  barren  regions,  or  become  a  mere  labour- 
ing class  without  rights  in  the  land  of  the  community. 


38  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

4.  5  The  poor  of  the  earth  hide  themselves  together : 

Behold,  as  wild  asses  in  the  desert 

They  go  forth  to  their  work,  seeking  diligently  for  meat ; 

The  wilderness  peldeth  them  food  for  their  children.  .  .  . 
7.  8  They  lie  all  night  naked  without  clothing. 

And  have  no  covering  in  the  cold. 

They  are  wet  with  the  showers  of  the  mountains, 

And  embrace  the  rock  for  want  of  a  shelter. 

Poverty,  Job  sees,  necessitates  borrowing,  and  the  fresh  distress 
that  is  its  natural  sequel. 

»»  3  They  violently  take  away  flocks  and  feed  them. 

They  drive  away  the  ass  of  the  fatherless,  • 

They  take  the  widow's  ox  for  a  pledge. 

Poverty  is  seen  side  by  side  with  wealth,  forced  into  close  relation- 
ship with  it  that  increases  the  distress  of  want. 

6  They  cut  his  provender  in  the  field; 

And  they  glean  the  vintage  of  the  wicked.   .  .  . 
lo,  XX  And  being  an-hungered  they  carrj-  the  sheaves ; 

They  make  oil  within  the  walls  of  these  men ; 

They  tread  their  winepresses,  and  suffer  thirst 

As  a  next  stage  we  get  the  crowding  of  population  in  cities,  with 
hints  of  fresh  distress  and  turbulence. 

xa  From  out  of  the  populous  city  men  groan, 

And  the  soul  of  the  wounded  crieth  out. 
Yet  God  imputeth  it  not  for  folly. 

The  climax  comes  in  the  formation  of  a  purely  criminal  class. 

I3-X7  These  are  of  them  that  rebel  against  the  light; 

They  know  not  the  ways  thereof. 

Nor  abide  in  the  paths  thereof. 
The  murderer  riseth  with  the  light. 

He  killeth  the  poor  and  needy; 

And  in  the  night  he  is  as  a  thief. 
The  eye  also  of  the  adulterer  waiteth  for  the  tis-ilight; 

Saving,  No  eye  shall  see  me; 

And  he  putteth  a  covering  on  his  face. 


INTKODUCTION  39 

In  the  dark  they  dig  through  houses : 

They  shut  themselves  up  in  the  daytime. 

They  know  not  the  Hght. 
For  the  morning  is  to  all  of  them 

As  the  shadow  of  death; 

For  they  know  the  terrors  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  when  Job  makes  his  general  vindication  he 
finds  a  chniax  in  disowning  sins  against  the  rights 

xxxi.  38 

and  duties  of  land. 

It  appears  then  that  both  philosophy  and  science  have  their 
representation  in  this  ancient  book  of  the  Bible.  Yet  every  reader 
will  feel  that  these  words  are  an  imperfect  descrip- 
tion of  the  matter  which  makes  up  the  poem  of  |^°*^^^^*° 
Job.  Philosophy  is  based  upon  reason ;  but  in  the 
present  case  there  is  a  section  of  the  poem  which  represents  God 
himself  as  entering  into  the  discussion,  and  holding  up  a  view 
of  the  truth  from  which  no  one  appeals.  It  is  clear  that  in  the 
Book  of  Job  yet  another  element  of  Revelation  mingles  side  by 
side  with  Philosophy;  and  the  new  element  implies  a  new  divi- 
sion of  literature.  The  student  who  comes  to  the  Bible  from 
other  literatures  must  be  prepared  to  recognise  a  special  literary 
type,  that  of  Prophecy  :  a  department  which  is  distinguished  from 
others  not  by  form  —  for  Prophecy  may  take  any  form  —  but  by 
spirit,  its  differentia  being  that  it  presents  itself  as  an  authoritative 
Divine  message.  The  literary  study  of  the  Bible  has  no  more 
important  task  than  that  of  describing  Prophecy  from  the  literary 
point  of  view. 

The  varieties  of  literary  form  illustrated  in  the  work  we  are 
considering  are  not  yet  exhausted.     We  have  called  the  Book  of 
Job  a  drama   and   a  philosophic  discussion ;   yet 
neither  of  these  descriptions  will  account  for  the   Rhetoric 
strange  character  of  the  individual  speeches  which 
strikes  every  reader.     Their   length,  if  nothing  else,  would  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  speeches  of  other  dramas ;  and  their  tone 
is  equally  far  removed  from  the  tone  of  philosophic  disquisition. 


40  LITERARY  STUDY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

They  have  in  them  plenty  of  dramatic  force,  and  also  clear  and 
effective  strokes  of  argument.  But  they  do  not  stop  with  these  ; 
the  dramatic  thrust  gives  place  to  ornate  moralising  which,  from 
the  dramatic  point  of  view,  seems  so  much  waste ;  and  the  point 
of  the  argument  is  again  and  again  lost  in  an  accumulation  of 
beautiful  irrelevancy.  He  would  be  a  very  perverse  reader  who 
should  cry  out  against  these  characteristics  oi  Job  as  literar}'  faults  : 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  evidence  that  the  character  of  the  work 
is  insufficiently  described  by  the  terms  drama  and  discussion.  A 
further  element  comes  in  of  Rhetoric  :  not  in  the  debased  sense 
which  the  word  is  coming  to  bear  to  modern  ears,  but  the  Rhetoric 
of  antiquity  which  was  the  delight  in  speech  for  its  own  sake. 
Each  delivery  of  a  speaker  in  the  poem  of  Job  is  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  work  of  art  in  itself.  If  Job  in  the  course  of  the  dis- 
cussion interjects  the  parenthetic  thought,  "  What  is  the  good  of 
arguing?"  this  parenthesis  is  found  to  be  .a  finished 
meditation  of  twenty-eight  lines.  The  speech  in  which 
it  occurs  is  answered  by  Bildad,  and  he  meets  Job's  eloquence  by 
a  tour-dejorce  of  imagery  painting  the  whole  universe  watch- 
ing to  destroy  the  sinner,  and  this  piece  of  word-beauty 
*^^^'  ^"^^  runs  to  thirty-four  lines.  Zophar  in  the  same  round  of 
discussion  varies  the  beauty  by  a  string  of  wise  saws  on  the  same 
topic,  and  these  extend  to  sixty  lines.  All  this  is  over  and  above 
the  portions  of  the  speeches  which  are  strictly  argimient- 
"■  '*'*^  ative.  It  is  clear  then  that  the  personages  of  the  poem 
answer  one  another,  not  only  wth  argument  and  dramatic  passion, 
but  also  with  counterpoises  of  rhetoric  weight.  The  whole  be- 
comes like  a  controversy  carried  on  in  sonnets,  a  discussion  waged 
in  perorations.  Once  more  the  many-sidedness  of  the  Bible  is 
apparent ;  and  the  student  who  would  fully  appreciate  it  must 
train  himself  in  the  literary  interest  of  Rhetoric. 

One  word  more  has  yet  to  be  said.  The  literary  varieties  men- 
tioned so  far  are  such  as  appeal  chiefly  to  the  mind.  But  there 
is  one  main  distinction  in  literature  that  appeals  to  the  eye  and 
the  ear  also ;  the  distinction  between  the  '  straight-forward '  speech 


INTRODUCTION  41 

called  '  prose,'  and  that  kind  of  speech  which  '  measures  '  itself 
into  metres  and  verses.     A  glance  at  the  Book  of 
Job    in   any  propedy  printed   version   shows  that   vg^j^fication 
this  work,  like  the    plays   of  Shakespeare    or  the 
later  stories  of  William  Morris,  presents  an  interchange  between 
the  two  fundamental  forms  of  language,  being  a  dialogue  in  verse 
enclosed  in  a  frame  of  prose  story.     When  however  the  English 
reader  calls  in  his  ear  to  supplement  his  eye,  he  finds  that  the 
verse  passages  oi  Job  differ  essentially  from  what  he  is  accustomed 
to  find  in  English  verse.     There  is  no  rhyme,  nor  do  the  lines 
correspond  in  meters   or   syllables.     The  Book  of  Job,  then,  in 
addition  to  its  other  literary  suggestiveness,  raises  the  elementary 
questions  of  Biblical  versification. 

The  purpose  of  this  Introduction  is  now  accomplished.  I  have 
engaged  the  reader's  attention  with  a  single  book  of  the  Bible ; 
we  have  seen  that,  over  and  above  what  it  yields  to 
the  theological  faculty  or  the  religious  sense,  the  ^^^.j^  ^ 
Book  of  Job  is  a  piece  of  Uterature,  the  analysis  of 
which  brings  us  into  contact  with  all  the  leading  varieties  of 
literary  form.  What  the  Introduction  has  done  in  reference  to  a 
single  book,  the  work  as  a  whole  is  to  do  in  reference  to  the 
whole  Bible,  proceeding  however  by  a  method  more  regular  than 
has  been  necessary  so  far.  The  work  will  be  divided  into  six 
books.  The  first  book  will  start  with  the  point  last  reached  — 
Biblical  Versification  —  and  widening  from  this  will  search  out 
other  distinctions  which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  Classification 
of  Literature  under  such  heads  as  Lyric,  Epic,  Philosophic,  Pro- 
phetic, Rhetoric.  The  subsequent  books  will  take  up  these  depart- 
ments one  by  one,  illustrating  each,  with  the  subdivisions  of  each, 
from  the  most  notable  examples  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  The 
reader  who  has  thus  given  his  attention  to  the  general  literary 
aspects  of  the  Bible  will  then  find,  in  an  Appendix,  Tabular 
arrangements  into  which  the  whole  of  the  Bible  enters,  intended 
to  assist  him  when  he  desires  to  read  the  Sacred  Writings  from  the 
literary  point  of  view. 


Book   First 


LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  APPLIED  TO  THE 
SACRED  SCRIPTURES 


Chapter  Puge 

L    Versification  and  Rhythmic  Parallelism  .        .      45 

IL    The  Higher  Parallelism,  or  Parallelism  of  Inter- 
pretation             ...      68 

HI.    The  Lower  and  the  Higher  Unity  in  Literature   .      81 

IV.     Classification  of  Literary  Forms       .        .        .        .105 


CHAPTER   I 

VERSIFICATION    AND    RHYTHMIC    PARALLELISM 

The  Bible  is  the  worst-printed  book  in  the  world.  No  other 
monument  of  ancient  or  modern  literattire  suffers  the  fate  of  being 
put  before  us  in  a  form  that  makes  it  impossible, 

.  ,  „  ,  -111  •    •  Literary  form  of 

Without  Strong  effort  and  considerable  training,  to   scripture  ob- 
take  in  elements  of  literary  structure  which  in  all  scured  by  ordi- 
other  books  are  conveyed  directly  to  the  eye  in  a  p^^™! 
manner  impossible  to  mistake. 

By  universal  consent  the  authors  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
included  men  who,  over  and  above  qualifications  of  a  more 
sacred  nature,  possessed  literary  power  of  the  highest  order.  But 
between  their  time  and  ours  the  Bible  has  passed  through  what 
may  be  called  an  Age  of  Commentary,  extending  over  fifteen 
centuries  and  more.  During  this  long  period  form,  which  should 
be  the  handmaid  of  matter,  was  more  and  more  overlooked ; 
reverent,  keen,  minute  analysis  and  exegesis,  with  interminable 
verbal  discussion,  gradually  swallowed  up  the  sense  of  literary 
beauty.  When  the  Bible  emerged  from  this  Age  of  Commentary, 
its  artistic  form  was  lost ;  rabbinical  commentators  had  divided 
it  into  *  chapters,'  and  medieval  translators  into  '  verses,'  which 
not  only  did  not  agree  with,  but  often  ran  counter  to,  the  origi- 
nal structure.  The  force  of  this  unliterary  tradition  proved  too 
strong  even  for  the  literary  instincts  of  King  James's  translators. 
Accordingly,  one  who  reads  only  the  *  Authorized  Version  '  incurs 
a  double  danger  :  if  he  reads  his  Bible  by  chapters  he  will,  with- 
out knowing  it,  be  often  commencing  in  the  middle  of  one  com- 

45 


46  LITER AR  V  CLASSIFICA  TION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

position  and  leaving  off  in  the  middle  of  another;  while,  in 
in  particular:  whatever  way  he  may  read  it,  he  will  know  no  dis- 
verse  printed  as  tinction  between  prose  and  verse.  It  is  only  in 
^^^^^  our   own   day  that   a   better   state   of  things   has 

arisen.  The  Church  of  England  led  the  way  by  issuing  its  '  New 
Lectionary ' ;  the  new  lessons  will  be  found  to  differ  from  the  old 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  passages  marked  out  for  public  reading 
are  no  longer  limited  by  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  chapters. 
Later  still  the  '  Revised  Version '  of  the  Bible,  whatever  it  may 
have  left  undone,  has  at  all  events  made  an  attempt  to  rescue 
Biblical  poetry  from  the  reproach  of  being  printed  as  prose. 

It  is  to  the  latter  of  these  two  points  —  the  distinction  between 

verse  and  prose  —  that  I  address  myself  in  the  present  chapter. 

No  doubt  the   confusion  of  the  two  would  have 

Biblical  Versifi-  . 

cation  based  on  been  impossible,  were  it  not  that  the  versification 
parallelism  of  of  the  Bible  is  of  a  kind  totally  unlike  that  which 
prevails  in  English  literature.  Biblical  verse  is 
made  neither  by  rhyme  nor  by  numbering  of  syllables  ;  its  long- 
lost  secret  was  discovered  by  Bishop  Lowth  more  than  a  cen- 
tury after  King  James's  time.  Its  underlying  principle  is  found 
to  be  the  symmetry  of  clauses  in  a  verse,  which  has  come  to  be 
called  '  Parallelism.' 

Hast  thou  given  the  horse  his  might? 

Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  the  quivering  mane? 

Hast  thou  made  him  to  leap  as  a  locust? 

The  glory  of  his  snorting  is  terrible. 

He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength : 

He  goeth  out  to  meet  the  armed  men. 

He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  dismayed; 

Neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword. 

The  quiver  rattleth  against  him, 

The  flashing  spear  and  the  javelin. 

He  swallowcth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage; 

Neither  standcth  he  still  at  the  voice  of  the  trumpet. 

As  oft  as  the  trumpet  soundeth  he  saith,  Aha ! 

And  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  oft', 

The  thunder  of  the  captains,  and  the  shouting. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  47 

It  is  abundantly  clear,  first,  that  this  is  a  passage  of  the  highest 
rhythmic  beauty ;  secondly,  that  the  effect  depends  neither  on 
rhyme  nor  metre.  Like  the  swing  of  a  pendulum  to  and  fro,  like 
the  tramp  of  an  army  marching  in  step,  the  versification  of  the 
Bible  moves  with  a  rhythm  of  parallel  lines. 

How  closely  the  effect  of  this  versification  is  bound  up  with  the 
parallelism  of  the  clauses,  the  reader  may  satisfy  himself  by  a 
simple  experiment.  Let  him  take  such  a  psalm  as  the  one  hun- 
dred and  fifth ;  and,  commencing  (say)  with  the  eighth  verse, 
let  him  read  on,  omitting  the  second  line  of  each  couplet :  what 
he  reads  will  then  make  excellent  historic  prose. 

He  hath  remembered  his  covenant  for  ever :  the  covenant  which  he 
made  with  Abraham,  and  confirmed  the  same  unto  Jacob  for  a 
statute,  saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan,"  when 
they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number,  and  they  went  about  from 
nation  to  nation.  He  suftered  no  man  to  do  them  wrong,  saying, 
"  Touch  not  mine  anointed  ones." 

Let  him  now  read  again,  putting  in  the  lines  omitted  :  the  prose 
becomes  transformed  into  verse  full  of  the  rhythm  and  lilt  of  a 
march. 

He  hath  rememl^ered  his  covenant  for  ever, 

The  word  which  he  commanded  to  a  thousand  generations; 
The  covenant  which  he  made  with  Abraham, 

And  his  oath  unto  Isaac; 
And  confirmed  the  same  unto  Jacob  for  a  statute, 

To  Israel  for  an  everlasting  covenant : 
Saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan, 

The  lot  of  your  inheritance  "  : 
When  they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number; 

Yea,  very  few,  and  sojourners  in  it; 
And  they  went  al)out  from  nation  to  nation, 

From  one  kingdom  to  another  people 
He  suffered  no  man  to  do  them  wrong; 

Yea,  he  reproved  kings  for  their  sakes; 
Saying,  "Touch  not  mine  anointed  ones. 

And  do  my  prophets  no  harin." 


\ 


48 


LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


The  alphabet,  then,  of  Scriptural  versification  will  be  the  figures 
The  Couplet  and  of  Parallelism.  Of  these  figures  the  simplest  and 
Triplet  most  fundamental  are  the  Couplet  and.  Triplet.     A 

Couplet  consists  of  two  parallel  clauses,  a  Triplet  of  three. 

The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  us; 
The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge. 

He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth ; 
He  breaketh  the  bow,  and  cutteth  the  spear  in  sunder; 
He  burneth  the  chariots  in  the  fire. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  musical  rendering  of  the  psalms  by 
chants,  which  in  some  points  is  carried  to  such  a  degree  of  nicety, 
entirely  ignores  this  foundation  difference  of  Couplet  and  Triplet, 
the  same  chant  being  sung  to  both.     To  take  a  typical  case. 


* 


The  Lord  of 


Hosts  is        with  us 


^=S 


:fe:?- 


The  God  of 


Ja 


cob 


is        our    refiige. 


This  is  correct,  because  a  piece  of  music  which  is  two-fold  in 
its  structure  is  sung  to  a  couplet  verse.  But  presently  the  same 
music  will  be  sung  to  the  triplet  verse. 


He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth  : 
He  breaketh  the  bow  and  cUTTETH  the 


1 


spear      in       sunder. 


::1=d: 


1 


He  BURNeth  the 


char  -  iots       in        the    fire. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM 


49 


Every  ear  must  detect  that  this  is  a  clumsy  makeshift :  it  runs 
counter  to  a  rhythmic  distinction  as  fundamental  as  the  distinction 
of  common  time  and  triple  time  in  music.  The  remedy  is  very 
simple.     Chants  of  this  nature  are  made  up  of  two  parts. 


— fS!- 


:E 


1^1  ^1^: 


^^EE5 


i 


As  such  they  are  only  fitted  to  couplet  verses.  For  the  triplet 
verse  a  variant  is  needed  to  the  first  part,  sufficiently  like  it  to  be 
recognised,  yet  differing  in  a  note  or  two.     For 


32=:=:=^ 


X^ 


m 


a  simple  variant  would  be 


1 


The  couplet  verse  would  be  sung  as  before  ;    for  the  triplet  the 
variant  would  be  inserted  between  the  first  and  second  parts. 

(first  part) 


± 


I 


He  maketh  wars  to  CEASE  unto  the 
(variant) 


end        of  the    earth. 


:EE: 


~J21 


t=t:: 


He  breaketh  the  bow  and  CUTTETH  the  spear        in        sunder, 

(second  part) 


l=d==1: 


^ g^ 


3^3 


l=P 


He  BURNeth  the 


char  -  iots        in        the        fire. 


so  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

I  am  loth  to  delay  the  reader  with  what  may  seem  to  be  merely 
technical  matters.     But  attention  to  just  a  few  of  the  elementary 

forms  of  Hebrew  verse  will  richly  repay  itself  in 
DoubirTriDiets      increased  susceptibility  to  the  rhythmic  cadence  of 

Biblical  poetry.  Passing  then  to  other  figures,  it  is 
natural  to  mention  first  the  Quatrain,  which  has  four  lines.  The 
four  lines  may  be  related  to  one  another  in  various  ways,  of  which 
the  commonest  is  Alternation,  the  first  line  being  parallel  with  the 
third,  and  the  second  with  the  fourth. 

With  the  merciful 

Thou  wilt  show  thyself  merciful : 
With  the  perfect  man 

Thou  wilt  show  thyself  perfect.  ^ 

In  the  Quatrain  Reversed,  or  Introverted,  the  first  line  corresponds 
with  the  fourth,  and  the  two  middle  lines  with  one  another. 

Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  God, 

According  to  thy  loving  kindness : 

According  to  the  multitude  of  Thy  tender  mercies 

Blot  out  my  transgressions.^ 

Usually  such  introversion  is  merely  a  matter  of  form  ;  but  some- 
times it  is  found  to  be  closely  bound  up  with  the  sense. 

Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs, 

Neither  cast  your  pearls  before  the  swine  : 

Lest  haply  they  \jhe  swine\  trample  them  under  their  feet, 

And  \jhe  dogs\  turn  and  rend  you.^ 


1  Psalm  xviii.  25.  The  following  verse  is  another  example,  and  this  figure  is 
very  common. 

2  Psalm\\.  I.  Compare  the  metre  of  In  Meinoriam.  Other  examples  are  Psalm 
ciii.  I ;  ix.  15. 

8  Matthew  vii.  6.  It  will  be  observed  that  Hebrew  parallelism  strongly  influ- 
ences the  language  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  Apocryphal  books  originally 
Greek.  It  is  therefore  technically  correct  to  treat  '  Biblical '  literature  as  a  depart- 
ment by  itself. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  51 

Very  rarely  the  couplets  of  a  Quatrain  are  not  only  parallel  but 
interwoven,  so  that  the  sense  of  the  first  line  is  carried  on  by  the 
third,  and  the  sense  of  the  second  by  the  fourth. 

I  will  make  mine  arrows  drunk  with  blood, 

And  my  sword  shall  devour  flesh : 
With  the  blood  of  the  slain  and  the  captives, 

\_FlesIi\  From  the  head  of  the  leaders  of  the  enemy. ^ 

As  we  have  Quatrain  and  Quatrain  Reversed,  so  we  have  the      \ 
Double  Triplet  and  the  Triplet  Reversed.  \ 

Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you; 
Seek,  and  ye  shall  find; 

Knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you. 
For  every  one  that  asketh  receiveth. 
And  he  that  seeketh  findeth, 

And  to  him  that  knocketh  it  shall  be  opened.^ 

The  eye  catches  what  the  ear  confirms  in  this  arrangement :  how 
the  first  line  of  the  second  triplet  balances  the  first  line  of  the 
first  triplet,  the  second  the  second,  and  the  third  the  third.  But 
in  what  follows  the  order  of  the  second  triplet  is  reversed,  so 
that  the  beginning  of  the  whole  corresponds  with  the  end,  and 
the  middle  lines  with  one  another  : 

No  servant  can  serve  two  masters  : 
For  either  he  will  hate  the  one, 
And  love  the  other; 
Or  else  he  will  hold  to  one, 
And  despise  the  other. 
Ye  cannot  serve  God  and  mammon.^ 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  such  figures  occur  either  Recitative  addi- 
pure  or  intermixed  with  a  sequence  of  words  that  tions  to  Figures 

1  Deut.  xxxii.  42. 

2  Mattheio  vii.  7,  8.     Other  examples  are  Matthew  xii.  35  ;  Isaiah  xxxv.  5, 

3  Luke  xvi.  13.    Other  examples  .ae  Proverbs  xxx.  8,  9 ;  Psekiel  i.  27. 


52  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

remains  outside  the  rhythm,  Hke  the  '  recitative  '  of  a  chant.  Such 
a  recitative  may  occur  at  the  beginning  : 

And  in  that  day  thou  shalt  say 

I  \vill  give  thanks  unto  thee,  O  Lord, 

For  though  thou  wast  angry  with  me, 
Thine  anger  is  turned  away, 

And  thou  comfortest  me. 

or  at  the  end  : 

Make  the  heart  of  this  people  fat. 
And  make  their  ears  hea\'y, 
And  shut  their  eyes: 
Lest  they  see  with  their  eyes, 
And  hear  with  their  ears. 
And  understand  with  their  heart : 
and  turn  again  and  be  healed. 

Or  the  recitative  may  even  occur  by  interruption  in  the  middle  of 
the  figure  :  a  passage  in  St.  Matthew  has  two  Reversed  Quatrains 
in  succession  thus  interrupted. 

^^'hosoever  shall  swear  by  the  Temple,  it  is  nothing, 

But  whosoever  shall  swear  by  the  Gold  of  the  Temple,  he  is  a  debtor : 
(  Ye  fools  and  blind) 

For  whether  is  greater,  the  Gold? 
Or  the  Temple  that  hath  sanctified  the  Gold? 

And,  Whosoever  shall  swear  by  the  Altar,  it  is  mthing, 

But  whosoever  shall  swear  by  the  Gift  that  is  upon  it,  he  is  a  debtor: 

(  Ye  fools  and  blind) 
For  whether  is  greater,  the  Gift? 

Or  the  Altar  that  sanctilieth  the  Gift? 

There  is  no  Hmit  to  the  length  or  variety  of  such  figures  in 
Biblical   versification.     Of  the   more   elaborate  it 

The  Chain  Figure       ...    ,  i     .       ■      .  ^  t^l      r-\.    •     t?- 

Will  be  enough  to  mstance  two.      Ihe  Cham  i*ig- 

ure  is  made  up  of  a  succession  of  clauses  so  linked  that  the  goal 
of  one  clause  becomes  the  starting-point  of  the  next. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  53 

That  which  the  pahnerworm  hath  left 
hath  the  locust  eaten; 
and  that  which  the  locust  hath  left 
hath  the  cankerworm  eaten; 
and  that  which  the  cankerworm  hath  left 
hath  the  caterpillar  eaten. ^ 

The  figure  is  all  the  more  impressive  when  an  additional  line 
comes  to  complete  the  chain  of  ideas  by  connecting  the  end  with 
the  beginning. 

For  her  true  beginning  is 
desire  of  discipline; 
And  the  care  for  discipline  is 
love  of  her; 
And  love  of  her  is 

observance  of  her  laws; 
And  to  give  heed  to  her  laws 
confirnieth  incorruption; 
And  incorruption  bringeth  near  unto  God; 
So  then  desire  of  wisdom  promoteth  to  a  kingdom. 

But  perhaps  the  most  important  figure,  and  the  one  most  attrac- 
tive to  the  genius  of  Hebrew  poetry,  is  the  Envel-   xhe  Envelope 
ope   Figure,  by  which   a   series   of  parallel   lines  Figure 
running   to   any  length   are    enclosed  between  an  identical   (or 
equivalent)  opening  and  close. 

By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them. 

Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns? 

Or  figs  of  thistles? 

Even  so  every  good  tree  bringeth  forth  good  fruit, 

But  the  corrupt  tree  l:)ringeth  forth  evil  fruit : 

A  good  tree  cannot  bring  forth  evil  fruit, 
,  Neither  can  a  corrupt  tree  bring  forth  good  fruit. 

Every  tree  that  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit 

Is  hewn  down,  and  cast  into  the  fire. 
Therefore  by  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them.'^ 

1  Joel  i.  4.  Other  examples  are  in  Hosea  ii.  21,  22;  Romans  x.  14, 15  ;  //  Peter  i. 
5-7.    The  passage  next  cited  is  from  Wisdom  vi.  17-20. 

-  Compare  Psalm  viii :  or,  in  English  poetry,  the  opening  stanza  of  Southey's 
Thalada. 


54  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATIOX  OF  SCRIPTURE 

The  same  artistic  effect  of  envelopment  is  produced  when  in  such 
a  figure  the  close  is  not  a  repetition  of  the  opening,  but  completes 
it,  so  that  the  opening  and  the  close  make  a  unity  which  the 
parallel  clauses  develop. 

Consider  the  ravens: 

that  they  sow  not, 

neither  reap : 

which  have  no  store-chamber  nor  barn ; 

and  God  feedeth  them : 
Of  how  much  more  value  are  ye  than  the  birds !  ^ 

The  general  subject  of  versification  includes  not  only  these 
Figures  of  Parallelism,  the  ultimate  form  by  which  Biblical  verse 
separates  itself  from  prose,  but  also  those  larger 
aggregations  of  lines  and  verses  making  integral 
parts  of  a  poem,  which  may  be  called  'Stanzas.'  Four  points 
may  be  noted  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  stanzas  in  the 
structure  of  Hebrew  verse. 

First,  a  poem  may  be  composed  of  similar  figures  through- 
out :  this  is  the  treatment  most  famiUar  to  the  reader  of  English 
I.  stanzas  of  Sim- liter^^t^ire.  The  hundred  and  twenty-first  psalm 
ilar  Figures      /     jg  niade  up  of  four  similar  quatrains. 

Psalm  crxi  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  mountains : 

From  whence  shall  my  help  come? 
My  help  cometh  from  the  Lord, 
Which  made  heaven  and  earth. 

He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved : 
He  that  keepeth  thee  will  not  slumber; 
Behold,  he  that  keepeth  Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

The  Lord  is  thy  keeper : 

The  Lord  is  thy  shade  upon  thy  right  hand; 
The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee  by  day, 
Nor  the  moon  by  night. 

1  Luke  xii.  24.  —  The  figure  made  by  a  Question  and  its  Answer  comes  under 
this  head ;  e.g.  Psalm  xv,  or  Psalm  xxiv.  3-6. 


RHYTHMIC   PARALLELISM  55 

The  Lord  shall  keep  thee  from  all  evil : 
He  shall  keep  thy  soul; 

The  LoKD  shall  keep  thy  going  out  and  thy  coming  in, 
From  this  time  forth  and  for  evermore. 

Here  may  be  mentioned  a  device  of  versification  which  applies 
to  this  as  to  all  varieties  of  structure.  It  is  the  Refrain  :  the  recur- 
rence of  a  verse  (or  part  of  a  verse)  the  repetition  The  Refrain  as  a 
of  which,  besides  being  an  artistic  effect  in  itself,  structural  device 
assists  also  in  marking  off  such  divisions  as  stanzas.  A  refrain  in 
stanzas  of  this  first  kind  will  be  given  by  the  famihar  hundred  and 
thirty-sixth  psalm ;  the  poem  is  wholly  composed  of  couplets, 
and  the  second  line  of  each  couplet  is  the  refrain, 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

A  second  treatment  of  stanzas  is  seen  where  a  psalm  is  found 
to  be  composed  of  different  figures.     The  analysis   of  the  first 
psalm   yields   a   result   of  this   nature.     First   wej  2.  stanzas  of 
have  a  triple  triplet  preceded  by  a  recitative.  ^Varying Figures 

Blessed  is  the  man  Psalm  i 

that  walketh  not 
in  the  counsel 

of  the  wicked. 
Nor  standeth 
in  the  way 
of  sinners. 
Nor  sitteth 

in  the  seat 

of  the  scornful. 

This  is  followed  by  a  quatrain  reversed. 

But  his  delight 

is  in  the  law  of  the  Lord  : 

And  in  his  law 
Doth  he  meditate  day  and  night. 


56  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

The  next  verse  is  a  good  example  of  the  closeness  with  which 
form  reflects  matter.  Its  form  is  found  to  be  a  double  quatrain 
with  an  introduction.  On  examination  this  recitative  introduction 
will  be  seen  to  put  forward  the  general  thought  —  the  comparison 
of  the  devout  life  to  a  tree ;  while  the  figure  works  this  thought 
out  into  particulars,  on  the  plan  of  the  left-hand  members  of  the 
figure  suggesting  elements  of  vegetable  Ufe  —  the  planting,  the 
fruitage,  the  foliage  —  and  the  right-hand  members  predicating 
perfection  of  each. 

And  he  shall  be  like  a  Tree 
Planted 

by  the  streams  of  water, 
That  bringeth  forth  its  fruit 

in  its  season ; 
Whose  leaf  also 

doth  not  wither, 
And  whatsoever  he  doeth 

shall  prosper. 

Next,  we  have  a  single  couplet,  sharply  contrasting  with  what  has 
gone  before  the  mere  worldly  life. 

The  wicked  are  not  so, 

But  are  like  the  Chaff  which  the  wind  driveth  away. 

A  simple  quatrain  and  a  quatrain  reversed  bring  the  poem  to  a 
conclusion. 

Therefore  the  wicked  shall  not  stand 

in  the  judgement, 
Nor  sinners 

in  the  congregation  of  the  righteous. 

For  the  Lord  knoweth 

the  way  of  the  righteous, 

But  the  way  of  the  wicked 
shall  perish. 

As  much  lyric  beauty  is  here  produced  by  the  avoidance  of  similar 
figures  in  successive  verses  as  in  the  former  case  by  the  repetition 
of  them. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  57 

Where  lyrics  are  constructed  on  this  second  plan  the  refrain 
may  still  come  to  emphasise  the  divisions.  The  forty-sixth  psalm 
is  arranged  in  the  Revised  Version  in  two  stanzas  of  six  lines  and 
one  of  seven  :  the  refrain  —  a  shout  of  triumph  —  brings  each  to 
a  climax.  It  has,  however,  dropped  out  by  accident  from  the  first 
stanza  in  the  received  text,  and  must  be  restored.^ 

God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  Psalm xlvi 

A  very  present  help  in  trouble. 

Therefore  will  we  not  fear,  though  the  earth  do  change, 
,  And  though  the  mountains  be  moved  in  the  heart  of  the  seas; 

Though  the  waters  thereof  roar  and  be  troubled, 
Though  the  mountains  shake  with  the  swelling  thereof. 

The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  us; 

The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge! 

There  is  a  river,  the  streams  whereof  make  glad  the  city  of  God, 
The  holy  place  of  the  tabernacles  of  the  Most  High. 

God  is  in  the  midst  of  her;   she  shall  not  be  moved : 

God  shall  help  her,  and  that  right  early. 

The  nations  raged,  the  kingdoms  were  moved : 

He  uttered  his  voice,  the  earth  melted. 
The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  us; 
The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge! 

Come,  behold  the  works  of  the  Lord, 
What  desolations  he  hath  made  in  the  earth. 

He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth; 

He  breaketh  the  bow,  and  cutteth  the  spear  in  sunder; 

He  burneth  the  chariots  in  the  fire. 

"  Be  still,  and  know  that  I  am  God : 

I  will  be  exalted  among  the  nations,  I  will  be  exalted  in  the  earth." 
The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  us; 
The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge! 

1  On  the  general  subject  of  textual  emendation,  I  would  lay  down  the  principle 
that,  where  the  sense  is  affected  by  a  proposed  change,  it  is  prudent  to  be  con- 
servative and  chary  of  admitting  it.  But  where  (as  with  a  repetition)  it  is  only  a 
question,  of  form,  the  long  period  of  tradition  mentioned  above,  during  which  the 
literary  form  of  Scripture  was  overlooked,  justifies  us  in  expecting  many  omissions 
and  misplacements. 


58  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OP  SCRIPTURE 

We  have  a  more  elaborate  symmetry  of  parallelism  when  we 

come  to  Antistrophic  stanzas.     The  word  is  Greek,  and  the  spirit 

.  4.-  ^     v.-        of  this  beautiful  form  of  structure  is  best  caught 

3.  Antistrophic  ° 

structure  of  from  the  complete  realisation  of  it  in  Greek  lyrics, 

stanzas  ^  Greek  ode  was  performed  by  a  body  of  singers 

whose  evolutions  as  they  sang  a  stanza  carried  them  from  the  altar 
towards  the  right :  then  turning  round  they  performed  an  answer- 
ing stanza,  repeating  their  movements,  until  its  close  brought  them 
to  the  altar  from  which  they  had  started.  Then  a  stanza  would 
take  them  to  the  left  of  the  altar,  and  its  answering  stanza  would 
bring  them  back  to  the  starting-point :  and  of  such  pairs  of  stanzas 
an  ode  was  normally  made  up.  From  a  Greek  word  meaning  '  a 
turning '  the  first  stanza  of  a  pair  was  called  a  strophe,  its  answering 
stanza  an  atitisirophe :  and  the  metrical  rhythms  of  the  antistrophe 
reproduced  those  of  the  corresponding  strophe  line  by  line,  though 
the  rhythm  might  be  wholly  changed  between  one  pair  of  stanzas 
and  another.  Hebrew  lyrics  contain  examples  of  this  disposition 
of  stanzas  in  pairs  ;  and  the  two  stanzas  of  a  pair  agree,  not  of 
course  in  metre,  but  in  number  of  parallel  lines.  Though  somewhat 
rare  in  the  Bible,  this  structure  is  worthy  of  close  study  wherever  it 
occurs.  The  simplest  case  is  where  each  antistrophe  immediately 
follows  its  strophe,  and  of  this  the  thirtieth  psalm  is  an  example. 

Strophe  i 
Psalm  XXX    I  will  extol  thee,  O  Lord  ;   for  thou  hast  raised  me  up, 
And  hast  not  made  my  foes  to  rejoice  over  me. 

0  Lord  my  God, 

1  cried  unto  thee,  and  thou  hast  healed  me. 

O  Lord,  thou  hast  brought  up  my  soul  from  Sheol : 

Thou  has  kept  me  alive,  that  I  should  not  go  down  to  the  pit. 

Antistrophe 
Sing  praise  unto  the  Lord,  O  ye  saints  of  his, 
And  give  thanks  to  his  holy  name. 
For  his  anger  is  but  for  a  moment; 
In  his  favour  is  life  : 
Weeping  may  tarry  for  the  night, 
But  joy  Cometh  in  the  morning. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  59 

Strophe  2 

As  for  me,  1  said  in  my  prosperity, 

I  shall  never  be  moved. 

Thou,  Lord,  of  thy  favour  hadst  made  my  mountain  to  stand  strong : 

Antistrophe 

Thou  didst  hide  thy  face;   I  was  troubled. 

I  cried  to  thee,  O  Lord; 

And  unto  the  Lord  I  made  supplication : 

Strophe  j 

"  What  profit  is  there  in  my  blood  when  I  go  down  to  the  pit? 
Shall  the  dust  praise  thee?     Shall  it  declare  thy  truth? 
Hear,  O  Lord,  and  have  mercy  upon  me : 
Lord,  be  thou  my  helper." 

Antistrophe 

Thou  hast  turned  for  me  my  mourning  into  dancing; 

Thou  hast  loosed  my  sackcloth,  and  girded  me  with  gladness : 

To  the  end  that  my  glory  may  sing  praise  to  thee,  and  not  be  silent. 

O  Lord  my  God,  I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee  for  ever. 

But  in  the  parallelism  of  stanzas,  as  well  as  the  parallelism  of 

lines  in  a  figure,  the  device  of  introversion  is  found, 

by  which,  it  will  be  recollected,  beginning  corre-   ■^t^strophic 
■^  '  >        &  &  V     Introversion 

sponds  with  end,  and  middle  part  with  middle  part. 

An  example  of  such  antistrophic  introversion  is  found  in  the  hun- 
dred and  fourteenth  psalm,  which  thought  and  form 
combine  to  make  one  of  the  most  striking  of  Hebrew 
lyrics.  It  is  a  song  inspired,  not  only  by  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  but  also  by  the  new  conception  of  Deity  which  that  deliver- 
ance exhibited  to  the  world.  In  the  age  of  the  exodus  the  prevail- 
ing conception  of  a  god  was  that  of  a  being  sacred  to  a  particular 
territory,  out  of  the  bounds  of  which  territory  the  god's  power  did 
not  extend.  But  the  Israehtes  in  the  wilderness  presented  to  the 
world  the  spectacle  of  a  nation  moving  from  country  to  country 
and  carrying  the  presence   of  their  God  with  them ;    it  was  no 


60  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

longer  the  land  of  Goshen,  but  the  nation  of  Israel  itself  that  con- 
stituted the  sanctuary  and  dominion  of  Jehovah.  The  wonder  of 
this  conception  the  psalm  expresses  by  the  favourite  Hebrew  image 
of  nature  in  convulsion ;  and  the  effect  of  introversion  in  giving 
shape  (so  to  speak)  to  the  whole  thought  of  the  poem  may  be 
conveyed  to  the  eye  by  the  following  scheme  : 

A  new  conception  of  Deity ! 

Nature  convulsed ! 

Why  Nature  convulsed? 
At  the  new  conception  of  Deity. 

Those  phrases  sum  up  the  thought  of  the  successive  stanzas,  which 
are  so  related  to  one  another  that  the  first  strophe  is  followed  by 
a  second,  and  the  antistrophe  to  the  second  strophe  precedes  the 
antistrophe  to  the  first. 

Strophe  i 

When  Israel  went  forth  out  of  Egypt, 

The  house  of  Jacob  from  a  people  of  strange  language; 
Judah  became  his  sanctuary, 

Israel  his  dominion. 

Strophe  2 

The  sea  saw  it  and  fled; 
Jordan  was  driven  back. 
The  mountains  skipped  like  rams, 
The  little  hills  like  young  sheep. 

Antistrophe  2 

What  aileth  thee,  O  sea,  that  thou  fleest? 
Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  turnest  back? 
Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skip  like  rams? 
Ye  little  hills,  like  young  sheep? 

Antistrophe  i 

Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  I'KESENCE  of  the  Lord, 

At  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob; 
Which  turned  the  rock  into  a  pool  of  water, 

The  flint  into  a  fountain  of  waters ! 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  61 

Again,  we  find  as  a  rare  effect  in  Hebrew  poetry  what  is  com- 
mon in  Greek,  an  interweaving  of  stanzas  similar  to  the  inter- 
weaving of  couplets  in  a  quatrain  noted  above  ; 

the  first  strophe  is  followed  by  a  second  of  different   Antistrophic 

^                                 -'                                                Interweaving 
length,  then  succeed  the  antistrophe   to  the  first    - 

and  the  antistrophe  to  the  second.     The  ninety-ninth  psalm  has 

this  structure ;  and  the  effect  is  assisted  by  a  double  refrain  :  the 

longer  strophe  of  five  lines  has  a  short  refrain,  while  the  shorter 

strophe  of  three  lines  has  a  longer  refrain.^ 

Strophe  i 
The  Lord  reigneth  :  let  the  peoples  tremble  :  Psalm  xcix 

He  sitteth  upon  the  cherubim;   let  the  earth  be  moved. 
The  Lord  is  great  in  Zion ; 
And  he  is  high  above  all  the  peoples. 
Let  them  praise  thy  great  and  terrible  name. 
Holy  is  He  ! 

Strophe  2 

The  king's  strength  also  loveth  judgement; 

Thou  dost  establish  equity, 

Thou  executest  judgement  and  righteousness  in  Jacob.    • 

Exalt  ye  the  Lord  our  God 

And  worship  at  His  footstool. 

Holy  is  He! 

Antistrophe  i 

Moses  and  Aaron  among  his  priests, 

And  vSamuel  among  them  that  call  upon  his  name; 

They  called  upon  the  Lord,  and  he  answered  them. 

He  spake  unto  them  in  the  pillar  of  cloud : 

They  kept  his  testimonies  and  the  statute  that  he  gave  them. 

Holy  is  He! 

Antistrophe  2 

Thou  ansvveredst  them,  O  Lord  our  God, 

Thou  wast  a  God  that  forgavest  them, 

Though  thou  tookest  vengeance  of  their  doings. 

Exalt  ye  the  Lord  our  God, 

And  worship  at  his  holy  hill; 

For  the  Lord  our  God  is  holy  ! 

1  The  short  refrain  has  dropped  out  of  Antistrophe  i,  and  must  be  restored  (at 
the  end  of  verse  7). 


62  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

But  the  commonest  treatment  of  stanzas  in  Biblical  poetry  is 

that  which  is  also  the  freest :    where  a  poem  is  allowed  to  fall 

into  well-marked  divisions,  which  have,  however, 

4.  strophicstruc-   ^^^  distinct  relations  with  one  another  as  regards 
ture  of  stanzas  ° 

length    or    parallelism.      By   an    awkwardness    of 

nomenclature,  such  irregular  divisions  have  come  to  be  called 
'  strophes  ' :  it  is  too  late  to  change  the  usage,  but  the  reader 
must  be  on  the  watch  to  distinguish  the  '  strophic  structure,' 
f  where  the  stanzas  may  be  unequal,  from  the  '  antistrophic  struc- 
ture,' in  which  the  two  stanzas  of  a  pair  are  exact  counterparts. 
A  simple  example  of  such  division  by  natural  cleavage  only  will 
be  afforded  by  the  twentieth  psalm. 

Strophe  i  —  The  People 

Psalm  zx         The  Lord  answer  thee  in  the  day  of  trouble; 

The  name  of  the  God  of  Jacob  set  thee  up  on  high; 

Send  thee  help  from  the  sanctuary, 

And  strengthen  thee  out  of  Zion; 

Remember  all  thy  offerings, 

And  accept  thy  burnt  sacrifice; 

Grant  thee  thy  heart's  desire, 

And  fulfil  all  thy  counsel. 

We  will  triumph  in  thy  salvation, 

And  in  the  name  of  our  God  we  will  set  up  our  banners  : 

The  Lord  fulfil  all  thy  petitions. 

Strophe  2  —  The  King 

Now  know  I  that  the  Lord  saveth  his  anointed; 
He  will  answer  him  from  his  holy  heaven 
With  the  saving  strength  of  his  right  hand. 

Strophe  j  —  The  People 

Some  trust  in  chariots,  and  some  in  horses : 

But  we  will  make  mention  of  the  name  of  the  Lord  our  God. 

They  are  bowed  down  and  fallen  : 

But  we  are  risen,  and  stand  upright. 

O  Lord,  save  the  king; 

And  answer  us  when  we  call. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  63 

In  this  strophic  structure  the  refrain  has  a  special  value  for 
marking  out  the  stanzas  which  have  no  other  rhythmic  distinction. 
A  splendid  example  of  such  treatment  is  given  by 

1  11  ii_  J  u      1       r  Ti     1  Psalms  zlii-zliii 

the  poem  which  opens  the  second  book  of  Fsalms. 
The  allusion  of  one  of  its  verses  seems  to  associate  it  with  some 
high  ground  —  mountains  of  Hermon,  or  hill  Mizar  —  which  was 
the  last  point  from  which  the  Holy  Land  could  be  seen  by  an 
exile  carried  eastwards  ;  in  any  case,  it  is  appropriately  named 
'The  Exile's  Lament.'  The  spirit  of  the  whole  lyric  is  summed 
up  in  its  refrain,  which  is  a  struggle  between  despair  and  hope. 

Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul ? 
Aftd  7vhy  art  thou  disquieted  within  me? 

Hope  thou  in  God  : 
For  I  shall  yet  praise  him, 
Who  is  the  health  of  my  countenance 
And  my  God  ! 

This  refrain  is  found  to  unify  into  a  single  poem  the  psalms  num- 
bered forty-two  and  forty-three  ;  and  the  whole  falls  into  three 
strophes.  Though  the  refrain  does  not  change,  yet  its  repetition 
is  made  to  suggest  advance.  The  first  strophe  has  nothing  but 
longing  memories  :  how  the  poet  was  wont  to  mingle  with  the 
throng,  or  perhaps  lead  them  in  procession  to  the  house  of  God, 
with  the  voice  of  joy  and  praise,  a  multitude  keeping  holyday. 
Its  struggle  towards  hopefulness  is  so  unsuccessful  that,  after  the 
refrain,  the  second  strophe  opens  with  the  deepest  note  of  de- 
spondency. A  single  ray  of  light,  however,  is  cast  into  the  future, 
and  there  is  just  a  mention  of  loving-kindness  by  day  and  songs 
in  the  night,  after  which  thoughts  of  mourning  and  oppression 
resume  their  sway.  But  the  third  stanza  begins  with  a  more 
resolute  appeal  to  God  as  the  judge,  or  righter  of  the  oppressed; 
the  turn  has  been  taken,  and  we  advance  through  ideas  of  light 
and  truth  to  joy  and  praise  of  harp,  until  the  third  repetition  of 
the  refrain  makes  us  feel  that  its  summons  to  hope  has  proved 
successful. 


6+  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

Strophe  i 

As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks, 

So  panteth  my  soul  after  thee,  O  God. 

My  soul  thirsteth  for  God,  for  the  living  God : 

When  shall  I  come  and  appear  before  God? 

My  tears  have  been  my  meat  day  and  night. 

While  they  continually  say  unto  me.  Where  is  thy  God? 

These  things  I  remember,  and  pour  out  my  soul  within  me. 

How  1  went  with  the  throng,  and  led  them  to  the  house  of  God, 

With  the  voice  of  joy  and  praise,  a  multitude  keeping  holyday. 

Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul? 

And  ivhy  art  thou  disquieted  within  me  ? 
Hope  thou  in  God : 

For  I  shall  yet  praise  him. 

Who  is  the  health  of  my  countenance 
And  my  God  ! 

Strophe  s 

jSIy  soul  is  cast  down  within  me  ! 

Therefore  do  I  remember  thee  from  the  land  of  Jordan, 

And  the  Hermons,  from  the  hill  Mizar. 

Deep  calleth  unto  deep  at  the  noise  of  thy  waterspouts : 

All  thy  waves  and  thy  billows  are  gone  over  me ! 

Yet  the  Lord  will  command  his  loving-kindness  in  the  day-time, 

And  in  the  night  his  song  shall  be  with  me. 

Even  a  prayer  unto  the  God  of  my  life. 

I  will  say  unto  God  my  rock,  "  Why  hast  thou  forgotten  me  ? 

Why  go  I  mourning  because  of  the  oppression  of  the  enemy? 

As  with  a  sword  in  my  bones,  mine  adversaries  reproach  me; 

While  they  continually  say  unto  me.  Where  is  thy  God?" 

Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul  ? 

And  why  art  thou  disquieted  within  me? 
Hope  thou  in  God  : 

For  I  shall  yet  praise  him. 

Who  is  the  health  of  my  countenance 
And  my  God ! 

Strophe  j 

Judge  me,  O  God,  and  plead  my  cause  against  an  ungodly  nation : 

O  deliver  me  from  the  deceitful  and  unjust  man. 

For  thou  art  the  God  of  my  strength ;    why  hast  thou  cast  me  off  ? 


RHYTHMIC   PARALLELISM  65 

Why  go  I  mourning  because  of  the  oppression  of  the  enemy? 

O  send  out  thy  light  and  thy  truth;   let  them  lead  me: 

Let  them  bring  me  unto  thy  holy  hill,  and  to  thy  tabernacles. 

Then  will  I  go  unto  the  altar  of  God, 

Unto  God  my  exceeding  joy  : 

And  upon  the  harp  will  I  praise  thee,  O  God,  my  God. 

Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul? 

And  why  art  thou  disquieted  within  me? 
Hope  thou  in  God  : 

For  I  SHALL  yet  praise  him. 

Who  is  the  health  of  my  countenance 
And  my  God! 

But  the  maximum  of  lyric  effect  drawn  from  this  combination 
of  the  strophic  structure  and  the  refrain  is  found  in  a  portion  of 
the  hundred  and  seventh  psalm.     Here  there  is  a 

J        Ll  r      •  •  ,  r  Psalm  Cvii.  4-32 

QOUDle  refrain  :  one  puts  in  each  stanza  a  cry  for 
help,  the  other  the  outburst  of  praise  after  the  help  has  come  ; 
each  refrain  has  a  sequel  verse  which  appropriately  changes  with 
the  subject  of  each  stanza.  Thus  the  form  of  the  strophes  is  that 
which  the  eye  catches  in  the  subjoined  mode  of  printing  it ;  the 
body  of  each  stanza  consists  of  short  lines  putting  various  forms 
of  distress  ;  then  the  stanza  lengthens  its  lines  into  the  first  refrain 
with  its  sequel  verse,  and  enlarges  again  into  the  second  refrain 
with  its  sequel. 

Strophe  i 

They  wandered  in  the  wilderness 
In  a  desert  way; 

They  found  no  city  of  habitation. 
Hungry  and  thirsty, 
Their  soul  fainted  in  them. 
Then  (key  cried  unto  the  Lord  in  their  trouble, 
And  he  delivered  them  out  of  their  distresses. 
He  led  them  also  by  a  straight  way, 
That  they  might  go  to  a  city  of  habitation. 
Oh  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness. 
And  for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of  men  ! 
For  he  satisfieth  the  longing  soul, 
And  the  hungry  soul  he  (illeth  with  good. 


66  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

Strophe  2 

Such  as  sat  in  darkness 
And  in  the  shadow  of  death, 
Being  bound  in  affliction  and  iron; 
Because  they  rebelled  against  the  words  of  God, 
And  contemned  the  counsel  of  the  Most  High  : 
Therefore  he  brought  down  their  heart  with  labour, 
They  fell  down,  and  there  was  none  to  help. 
Then  they  cried  unto  the  Lord  in  their  trouble. 
And  he  saved  them  out  of  their  distresses. 
He  brought  them  out  of  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death. 
And  brake  their  bands  in  sunder. 
Oh  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness. 
And  for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of  men! 
For  he  hath  broken  the  gates  of  brass. 
And  cut  the  bars  of  iron  in  sunder. 

Strophe  j 

Fools  because  of  their  transgression. 
And  because  of  their  iniquities,  are  afflicted. 
Their  soul  abhorreth  all  manner  of  meat; 
And  they  draw  near  unto  the  gates  of  death. 
Then  they  cry  unto  the  Lord  in  their  trouble. 
And  he  saveth  them  out  of  their  distresses. 
He  sendeth  his  word,  and  healeth  them, 
And  delivereth  them  from  their  destructions. 
Oh  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness. 
And  for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of  men  ! 
And  let  them  offer  the  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving. 
And  declare  his  works  with  singing. 

Strophe  4 

They  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships, 
That  do  business  in  great  waters. 
These  see  the  works  of  the  Lord, 
And  his  wonders  in  the  deep. 
For  he  commandeth. 
And  raiseth  the  stormy  wind. 
Which  lifteth  up  the  waves  thereof: 
They  mount  up  to  the  heaven. 


RHYTHMIC  PARALLELISM  67 

They  go  down  again  to  the  depths; 
Their  soul  melteth  away  because  of  trouble  : 
They  reel  to  and  fro, 
And  stagger  like  a  drunken  man; 
And  are  at  their  wits'  end. 
The7i  they  ay  unto  the  Lord  in  their  trouble, 
And  he  bringeth  them  out  of  their  distresses. 
He  maketh  the  storm  a  calm, 
So  that  the  waves  thereof  are  still. 
Then  are  they  glad  because  they  be  quiet: 
So  he  bringeth  them  unto  the  haven  where  they  would  be. 
Oh  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness, 
And  for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of  men! 
Let  them  exalt  him  also  in  the  assembly  of  the  people, 
And  praise  him  in  the  seat  of  the  elders. 

It  is  just  such  Structural  variations  as  these  that  it  is  the  special 
mission  of  a  musical  rendering  to  express.^     In  the  psalm   just 
cited  the  melancholy  monotony  of  men's  voices  in 
unison  might  be  used  to   bring  out   the   various   siorof^stmc'ture 
phases  of  distress  which  make  the  subjects  of  suc- 
cessive strophes.     Children's  voices   in   harmony  and  unaccom- 
panied would  fitly  express  the  cry  for  help   (refrain  and  sequel 
verse),  while  full  choir  and  organ  would  give  out  the  thanksgiving. 
In  the  more  extended  final  stanza  a  monotone  of  men's  voices  in 
unison  would  leave  more  scope  for  organ  accompaniment  to  bring 
out  the  changes  of  the  sea.     Then  as  before  the  whole   would 
resoke  into  the  silvery  harmony  of  children's  voices  heard  alone  ; 
while  all  that  full  choir  and  instrument  could  do  would  be  needed 
for  the  final  climax. 

1  Bishop  Westcott's  Paragraph  /'ja//(?r(Macmillan)  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
such  structural  chanting.  A  musical  setting  oi  Psalms  Ixxviii  and  civ  in  illustration 
of  it  has  been  published  by  Dr.  Naylor,  Organist  of  York  Minster  (Novello). 


CHAPTER    II 

THE     HIGHER     PARALLELISM,     OR     PARALLELISM     OF    INTER- 
PRETATION 

The  preceding  chapter  has  sufificiently  exhibited  Bibhcal  Versi- 
fication in  its  leading  forms  and  devices  of  structure.  In  the 
Parallelism  in  present  chapter  I  consider  further  the  general 
general  spirit  of  parallehsni  which  underhes  it.     I  wish  to 

show  that  the  study  of  such  parallehsm  is  not  a  mere  matter  of 
technicahties,  but  that  it  connects  itself  directly  with  the  higher 
interests  of  literature. 

In  interpreting  the  meaning  of  Scripture  parallelism  plays  no 
p     ..  ..  unimportant  part.     I  will  commence  with  a  very 

factor  in  inter-  simple  example.  The  Song  of  the  Sword/  which 
pretation  gives  expression  to  the  excitement  attending  the 

first  invention  of  deadly  weapons,  contains  the  following  couplet : 


^ 


I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding, 
And  a  young  man  to  my  hurt. 


Does  this  passage  imply  the  slaying  of  one  person  or  two  persons? 
This  question  cannot  be  called  a  mere  matter  of  technicalities. 
Commentators  of  the  period  when  the  secret  of  parallelism  was 
lost  understood  the  words  to  mean  that  two  men  were  slain ;  and 
connecting  the  passage  with  the  succeeding  couplet — 

If  Cain  shall  be  avenged  sevenfold, 
Truly  Lamech  seventy  and  sevenfold  — 

they  found  an  interpretation  for  the  whole  by  supposing  that  when 

1  Otherwise  called  Song  of  Lamech  {Gen.  iv.  23-24). 
68 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  69 

Lamech  became  advanced  in  years  he  carried  with  him  a  youth 
to  show  him  where  to  point  his  arrows ;  that  this  youth  directing 
him  to  shoot  into  a  certain  bush  Lamech  thereby  slew  Cain,  and 
made  himself  liable  to  the  curse  invoked  on  the  slayer  of  that  out- 
cast. In  his  rage  Lamech  shot  a  second  arrow  at  his  youthful  at- 
tendant;  and  thus  two  slayings  are  accounted  for.  But  to  an  ear 
accustomed  to  parallelism  it  is  clear  enough  that  no  such  violence 
of  interpretation  is  required.  The  second  line  of  a  couplet  need 
not  be  a  separate  statement  from  that  of  the  first  line,  but  may 
be,  in  the  spirit  of  parallelism,  a  saying  over  again  of  what  has 
been  said.  Thus  the  couplet  need  only  imply  the  death  of  a 
single  person,  or  better,  slaying  as  a  general  idea.  And  the  sec- 
ond couplet  merely  gives  expression  to  the  enlarged  possibilities 
of  destruction  that  come  with  the  invention  of  the  sword  :  even 
the  vengeance  for  Cain  —  a  thing  that  had  perhaps  passed  into  a 
proverbial  expression  —  becomes  a  small  matter  in  comparison 
with  the  power  of  vengeance  the  armed  warrior  will  possess.  Thus 
the  whole  meaning  of  the  passage  has  been  changed  by  attention 
to  a  detail  of  versification. 

The  intrinsic  importance  of  this  first  example  is  not  great.  But 
no  one  will  consider  the  'Lord's  Prayer'  unim-  The  Lord's 
portant :  and  yet  it  would  seem  that  the  great  Prayer 
majority  of  those  who  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  public  fail  to 
bring  out  the  full  thought  that  underlies  it.  This  prayer  is  almost 
always  rendered  as  a  succession  of  isolated  clauses  which  may  be 
represented  thus  : 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,  Hallowed  be  thy  name.     Thy  king- 
dom come.     Thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven. 

But  the  true  significance  of  these  words  is  only  seen  when  they 
are  arranged  so  as  to  make  an  envelope  figure. 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven: 

Hallowed  be  thy  Name, 

Thy  Kingdom  come, 

Thy  Will  be  done. 
In  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven. 


70  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

In  the  former  version  the  words,  "  In  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven  "  are 
attached  only  to  the  petition,  "  Thy  will  be  done."  But  it  belongs 
to  the  envelope  structure  that  all  the  parallel  clauses  are  to  be 
connected  with  the  common  opening  and  close.  The  meaning 
thus  becomes :  "  Hallowed  be  thy  name  in  earth  as  it  is  in 
heaven,  Thy  kingdom  come  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven.  Thy  will 
be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven."  It  is  something  more  than 
literary  beauty  that  is  gained  by  the  change. 

One  more  illustration   of  the  close   connection  between  par- 
allelism   of   structure    and   interpretation   will   be 
afforded  by  the  eighth  psalm.     The  whole  of  this 
poem  makes  a  single  envelope  figure. 

O  Lord,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth ! 

Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens, 

Out  of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established  strength, 

Because  of  thine  adversaries, 

That  thou  mightest  still  the  enemy  and  the  avenger. 

When  I  consider  the  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers, 

The  moon  and  the  stars  which  thou  hast  ordained; 

What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him? 

And  the  son  of  man,' that  thou  visitest  him? 

For  thou  hast  made  him  but  little  lower  than  God, 

And  crownest  him  with  glory  and  honour. 

Thou  madest  him  to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of  thy  hands; 

Thou  hast  put  all  things  under  his  feet : 

All  sheep  and  oxen. 

Yea,  and  the  beasts  of  the  field; 

The  fowl  of  the  air,  and  the  fish  of  the  sea, 

Whatsoever  passeth  through  the  paths  of  the  seas. 
O  Lord,  our  Lord, 
How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth  ! 

By  neglect  of  the  true  structure,  three  lines  instead  of  two  have 
been  taken  into  the  opening  verse  : 

I.   O  Lord,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth ! 
Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens. 


PARALLELISM   OF  INTERPRETATION  71 

Accordingly,  the  verse  which  follows  this,  and  presumably  opens 
the  regular  thought  of  the  poem,  is  made  to  read  : 

2.    Out    of  the  mouth   of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established 
strength,  etc. 

So  arranged  this  verse  becomes  obscure,  and  the  ingenuity  of 
commentators  has  been  much  exercised  to  determine  what  is  the 
allusion  its  words  contain.  But  the  envelope  structure  conveys  at 
once  to  the  eye  that  the  first  two  lines  must  be  isolated  as  the 
enveloping  refrain,  and  then  the  opening  verse  becomes  this  : 

Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens, 

Out   of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established 
strength,  etc. 

That  the  Artificer  of  the  mighty  heavens  should  have  chosen  man 
—  a  mere  babe  and  suckling  in  comparison  —  to  be  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  might  to  the  rest  of  the  universe  :  this  is  the 
wonder  with  which  the  poem  really  opens,  and  the  thought  of 
feeble  man  as  God's  Viceroy  over  the  creation  is  precisely  the 
idea  which  is  found  to  bind  the  whole  psalm  into  a  unity. 

These  are  particular  examples  :  it  is  possible  to  generalise.     In 
Biblical  interpretation  the  question  will  repeatedly  arise,  whether 
a  particular  passage  is  to  be  understood  as  a  simple   paraiiersma 
narrative  of  facts  or  an  idealised  description:   in  criterion  for 
such  a  case  parallelism  of  clauses  will  undoubtedly  idealisation 
be  one  factor  in  the  interpretation.     I  have  already  suggested  that 
the  extreme  symmetry  of  the  clauses  which  describe  Job's  misfor- 
tunes descending  upon  him  tells  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the 
narrative  is  not  a  history  so  much  as  an  incident  worked  up  into  a 
parable.     In  a  more  important  matter  the  same  principle  has  been 

applied  to  the  opening  chapter  of  Genesis.     The 

r  o  r  Genesis  i 

account  of  the  Creation  which  this  passage  contams 

is  found,  upon  examination,  to  be  arranged  with  the  most  minute 
parallelism  of  matter  and  form.  Not  only  are  the  six  days  fur- 
nished with  opening  and  closing  formulae  which  correspond,  but 


72 


LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


the  whole  divides  into  two  symmetrical  halves  of  three  days  and 
three  days,  and  each  day  of  the  first  three  is  exactly  parallel  with 
the  corresponding  day  of  the  second  half.  A  table  will  illustrate 
the  structure. 


And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Light] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
■was  morning,  one  day. 

And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  the  Firmament 
dividing  waters  from  waters] 
And  there  was  evenitig  and  there 
was  morning,  a  second  day. 


And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Lights] 
Atid  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  trior ning,  a  fourth  day. 

And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Life  in  the  Firma- 
ment and  in  the  Waters] 

And  there  was  evening  and  there 

was  morning,  a  fifth  day. 


And  God  said — 
■j  [Creation  of  Land] 

^  And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Vegetation,  cli- 
max of  inanimate  nature] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  a  third  day. 


And  God  said — 
■j  [Creation  of  Life  on  Land] 

^  And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Man,  climax 
of  animate  nature] 
And  there  was  evening  and  tUere 
was  morning,  the  sixth  day. 


When  this  structure  and  the  fulness  of  its  parallelism  is  grasped,  it 
will  appear  reasonable  that  it  should  be  urged  as  one  argument  in 
favour  of  understanding  the  chapter  to  be,  not  a  narration  of  inci- 
dents in  their  order  of  succession,  but  a  logical  classification  of  the 
elements  of  the  universe,  with  the  emphatic  assertion  of  Divine 
creation  in  reference  to  each. 

The  reader  will  understand  that  it  is  not  essential  to  my  argu- 
ment that  such  interpretations  as  I  have  been  advancing  should 

seem  to  him  correct.     Parallelism  is  only  one  factor 
Recognition  of  ^ 

Parallelism  in  amongst  many  in  exegesis.  I  am  merely  concerned 
exegesis  ^.^  show  that  those  who  address  themselves  to  deter- 

mining the  matter  and  meaning  of  Scripture  nevertheless  appeal 
to  its  form  and  structure.  Indeed,  the  reader  unaccustomed  to 
this  subject  will  be  greatly  astonished  at  the  extent  and  minuteness 


PARALLELISM   OF  INTERPRETATION  73 

to  which  symmetry  of  form  in  Scripture  is  made  to  obtain  in  the 
exegesis  of  competent  theologians ;  when,  for  example,  not  a 
paragraph  but  a  long  poem,  or  the  whole  of  an  epistolary  treatise, 
is  represented  as  being  constructed  on  a  single  intricate  system. 
Such  elaborations  of  parallelism  must  be  considered  each  on  its 
own  merits ;  but  there  is  in  them  nothing  inherently  improbable. 
When  the  genius  of  a  language  rests  the  whole  system  of  its  versi- 
fication upon  symmetry  of  clauses,  it  becomes  a  safe  presumption 
that  parallelism  will  penetrate  very  deeply  into  its  logical  processes 
of  thought.^ 

We  have  been  led  to  see  then  that  there  are  two  points  of  view 
from  which  parallelism  may  be  considered  :  that  of  Rhythm  and 

that  of  Interpretation.      The    musical  element   of 

„.,  ,.     ,  ,  11   1  J  The  Lower  Paral- 

Biblical  language  rests  on  parallels  and  recurrences,   leusm  of  Rhythm 

and  an  ear  for  rhythm  is  as  essential  for  the  ap-   and  the  Higher 

preciation  of  Scriptural  style  as  an  ear  for  time  is  j^te^rpreution 

essential  for  the  appreciation  of  music.    But  thought 

may  be  rhythmic  as  well  as  language,  and  the  full  meaning  and 

force  of  Scripture  is  not  grasped  by  one  who  does  not  feel  how 

thoughts  can  be  emphasised  by  being  differently  re-stated,  as  in 

the  simplest  couplet ;  or  how  a  general  thought  may  reiterate  itself 

to  enclose  its  particulars,  as  in  the  envelope  figure,  or,  in  such 

cases  as  the  Lord's  Prayer,  hold  its  conclusion  in  suspense  until 

all  to  which  it  applies  has  been  set  forth ;   or  again,  as  in  the 

opening  of  Genesis,  how  a  passage  can  suggest  logical  symmetries 

while  in  form  it  is  only  narrating.      Accordingly  the   structural 

analysis  of  Biblical  language  must  distinguish  a  Lower  Parallelism 

of  Rhythm  and  a  Higher  Parallelism  of  Interpretation.     The  two 

can   never  clash,  since   in    Hebrew   rhythm  largely  depends  on 

recurrence  of  clauses  corresponding  in  thought ;  but  one  or  other 

parallelism  will  preponderate  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  a 

particular  passage  or  the  purpose  of  a  citation.     Sometimes  the 

musical  form  will  be  felt  to  preponderate,  and  in  this  case  the 

1  Dr.  Forbes's  Symmetrical  Structure  of  Scripture  (Clark,  Edinburgh)   may  be 
regarded  as  a  text-book  of  the  general  subject. 


74  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

structural  arrangement  of  the  passage  will  be  such  as  will  make 
prominent  the  recurrence  of  fixed  figures.  In  other  cases  the 
arrangement  will  bring  out  how  distant  sequences  of  words  from 
all  over  a  lengthy  passage  co-ordinate  together,  and  this  effect  will 
throw  into  the  background  the  parallelisms  of  couplets  and  trip- 
lets, which  nevertheless  are  to  be  found  when  looked  for.^ 

The  matter  is  best  treated  by  illustrations ;  and  I  proceed  to 
give  two  arrangements  of  the  same  passage,  based  respectively  on 
the  Lower  and  the  Higher  Parallelism. 

Job  X.  3-13  ar-         Is  it  good  unto  thee  that  thou  shouldest  oppress, 
ranged  for  Lower    That  thou  shouldest  despise  the  work  of  thine  hands, 
Parallelism  p^^^  shine  upon  the  counsel  of  the  wicked? 

Hast  thou  eyes  of  flesh, 

Or  seest  thou  as  man  seeth? 

Are  thy  days  as  the  days  of  man. 
Or  thy  years  as  man's  days. 

That  thou  inquirest  after  mine  iniquity, 
And  searchest  after  my  sin, 

Although  thou  knowest  that  I  am  not  wicked; 

And  there  is  none  that  can  deliver  out  of  thine  hand? 

Thine  hands  have  framed  me  and  fashioned  me 
Together  round  about;    yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 

Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as 

clay; 
And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again? 

Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk, 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese? 

Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh. 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews. 

1  On  the  whole  subject  compare  Appendix  III:    On  the  Structural  Printing  of 
Scripture. 


PARALLELISM   OF  INTERPRETATION  75 

Thou  hast  granted  me  life  and  favour, 
And  thy  visitation  hath  preserved  my  spirit. 

Yet  these  things  thou  didst  hide  in  thine  heart; 
I  Ivnow  that  this  is  with  thee. 

In  the  above  citation  I  have  followed  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  Bible  in  conveying  nothing  to  the  eye  beyond  the  elementary 
rhythm  of  couplets  and  triplets.  Such  an  arrangement  involves 
the  minimum  of  interpretation,  and  therefore  the  minimum  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  Where  the  higher  symmetry  is  expressed 
individual  interpretations  will  of  course  differ.  In  my  second 
arrangement  of  the  passage  figures  of  mere  rhythm  are  suppressed 
in  order  that  parallelisms  of  thought  may  stand  out. 

Is  it  good  unto  thee  that  thou  shouldest  oppress,  Arranged  for 

That  thou  shouldest  despise  the  work  of  thine  hands,        Higher 

And  shine  upon  the  counsel  of  the  wicked?  Parallelism 

Hast  thou  eyes  of  flesh, 

Or  seest  thou  as  man  seeth? 

Are  thy  days  as  the  days  of  man. 

Or  thy  years  as  man's  days, 

That  thou  inquirest  after  mine  iniquity, 

And  searchest  after  my  sin. 

Although  thou  knovvest  that  I  am  not  wicked; 

And  tliere  is  none  that  can  deliver  out  of  thine  hand? 
Thine  hands  have  framed  me. 
And  fashioned  me  together  round  about; 

Yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 
Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as  clay; 

And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again? 
Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk, 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese  ? 
Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh, 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews; 
Thou  hast  granted  me  life  and  favour, 
And  thy  visitation  hath  preserved  my  spirit : 

Yet  these  things  thou  didst  hide  in  thine  heart; 

I  know  that  this  is  with  thee. 


76  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Two  distinct  trains  of  thought  are  interwoven  in  this  passage :  in 
one  Job  makes  appeal  to  God  as  being  God's  own  handiwork ;  in 
the  other  he  protests  against  the  righteous  Lord  following  the 
oppressive  ways  of  unjust  judges.  In  this  second  arrangement 
the  two  elements  of,  the  thought  are  separated  :  lines  belonging 
to  the  first  are  indented  to  the  left,  Unes  belonging  to  the  second 
are  indented  to  the  right.  Thus  the  whole  play  of  thought  in  the 
passage  is  reflected  to  the  eye,  or,  in  other  words,  the  structural 
arrangement  has  brought  out  the  Parallelism  of  Interpretation.^ 

One  more  observation  must  be  made  on  Biblical  parallelism 
considered  as  an  element  in  literary  style.  It  is  that  such  sym- 
Usm  im-  nietrv  of  clauses  is  closely  bound  up  with  a  liter- 
pUes  its  opposite  j  ary  effect  of  an  opposite  kind  —  that  of  surprise. 
^^^^^^j^^  It  is  just  when  the  ear  is  being  led  by  the  general 
form  of  a  passage  to  expect  what  is  coming  that  the  disappoint- 
ment of  this  expectation,  and  the  substitution  of  something  new, 
strikes  with  most  telling  force.  Here,  again,  illustrations  will 
make  the  best  exposition. 

There  is  no  passage  in  the  Bible  in  which  parallelism  is  carried 

further  than  in  the  peroration  (if  the  word  may  be  allowed)  of 

the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  with  its  comparison  of 
Matthew  vii.  '  ,       ,      ,, 

24-27  the  two   kinds  of  hearers  to  the  builders  on  the 

rock  and  on  the  sand.  The  passage  is  antistrophic, 
and  for  every  clause  in  the  one  picture  there  is  a  corresponding 
clause  in  the  other.  Yet  here  the  effect  of  surprise  is  produced 
by  a  subtle  and  delicate  variation  which  has  been  recovered  for 
us  by  the  Revised  Version.  The  word  which  describes  the  action 
of  the  wind  differs  in  the  two  strophes ;  for  the  blasts  labouring 
in  vain  to  destroy  the  one  house  a  word  is  used  which  is  trans- 
lated by  the  English  '  beat ' ;  for  the  wind  in  the  other  case  the 
Greek  word  is  changed  to  something  which  the  Revisers  render 
'  smote  '  —  the  very  sound  of  which,  as  well  as  the  sense,  pictures 
a  single  blow  sufficing  to  bring  the  structure  down. 

1  In  my  edition  of  the  Book  of  Job  this  mode  of  printing  that  reflects  the  Higher 
Parallelism  is  followed  througliout,     [Macraillan  it  Co.] 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  77 

Strophe 

Every  one  therefore  which  heareth  these  words  of  mine, 

and  doeth  them, 
shall  be  likened  unto  a  Wise  Man, 
which  built  his  house  upon  the  Rock : 

And  the  rain  descended, 

and  the  floods  came, 

and  the  winds  blew 

and  beat  upon  that  house; 
and  it  fell  not : 
for  it  was  founded  upon  the  Rock. 

Antistrophe 

And  every  one  that  heareth  these  words  of  mine, 

and  doeth  them  not, 
shall  be  likened  unto  a  Foolish  ISIan, 
which  built  his  house  upon  the  Sand : 

And  the  rain  descended, 

and  the  floods  came, 

and  the  winds  blew, 

and  SMOTE  upon  that  house; 
and  it  fell : 
and  great  was  the  fall  thereof! 

In  this  example  the  effect  of  surprise  is  produced  by  a  verbal 

alteration.     It   is   more   pertinent  to  the  subject  of  the  present 

chapter  to  consider  cases  in  which  the  variation  ex-   ^   , 

^                                                                                             Psalm  cxzxix 
tends  to  a  whole  clause.     An  admirable  illustration . 

is  afforded  by  the  hundred  and  thirty-ninth  psalm.    This  exquisite 

lyric  is  in  structure  a  very  extended  form  of  the  envelope  figure. 

But  the  opening  verse,  when  it  appears  at  the  close,  has  undergone 

an  important  change  :  for  the  indicative  mood  of  the  opening  — 

O  Lord,  thou  hast  searched  me  — 

we  have  at  the  end  the  imperative  mood  — 

Search  me,  O  God  — 

and  the  whole  movement  of  the  poem  is  to  lead  from  the  one  ' 
state  of  mind  to  the  other.     At  the  outset  the  thought  of  Divine 


78  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

oniniscience  and  omnipresence  lies  like  a  weight  upon  the  poet's 
mind. 

O  Lord,  thou  hast  searched  me,  and  known  me  ! 

Thou  knowest  my  dovvnsitting  and  mine  uprising, 

Thou  understandest  my  thought  afar  off. 

Thou  searchest  out  my  path  and  my  lying  down, 

And  art  acquainted  with  all  my  ways. 

For  there  is  not  a  word  in  my  tongue. 

But,  lo,  O  Lord,  thou  knowest  it  altogether. 

Thou  hast  beset  me  behind  and  before. 

And  laid  thine  hand  upon  me. 

The  burden  becomes  intolerable,  and  the  poet  would  fain  throw 
it  off. 

Such  knowledge  is  too  wonderful  for  me; 

It  is  high,  I  cannot  attain  unto  it. 

Whither  shall  I  go  from  thy  spirit? 

Or  whither  shall  I  flee  from  thy  presence? 

If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  thou  art  there  : 

If  I  make  my  bed  in  Sheol,  behold,  thou  art  there. 

If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning, 

And  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea; 

Even  there  shall  thy  hand  lead  me. 

And  thy  right  hand  shall  hold  me. 

If  I  say.  Surely  the  darkness  shall  overwhelm  me, 

And  the  light  about  me  shall  be  night; 

Even  the  darkness  hideth  not  from  thee, 

But  the  night  shineth  as  the  day : 

The  darkness  and  the  light  are  both  alike  to  thee. 

The  sense  of  oppression  can  intensify  yet  further,  and  the  next 
verse  extends  it  backwards  in  time,  as  previous  verses  had  made 
it  stretch  through  all  space. 

For  thou  hast  possessed  my  reins : 

Thou  hast  covered  me  in  my  mother's  womb. 

It  is  just  here,  where  the  effect  is  at  its  height,  that  the  turn  comes. 
The  mysteries  of  the  womb  suggest  to  the  poet  that  this  Divine 
watchfulness  from  which  he  cannot  escape  is  the  same  watchful- 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  79 

ness  which,  in  his  helplessness,  built  him  up  into  the  being  he  is. 
The  current  of  thought  begins  to  flow  back  —  for  the  structure  of 
the  psalm  is  antistrophic  as  well  as  enveloped. 

I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee;  for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made : 
Wonderful  are  thy  works, 
And  that  my  soul  knoweth  right  well. 
My  frame  was  not  hidden  from  thee, 
When  I  was  made  in  secret, 

And  curiously  wrought  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  earth. 
Thine  eyes  did  see  mine  unperfect  substance, 
And  in  thy  book  were  all  my  members  written. 
Which  day  by  day  were  fashioned. 
When  as  yet  there  was  none  of  them. 

The  besetting  watchfulness  now  becomes  a  precious  thought  to 
the  psalmist ;  most  precious  of  all,  the  incalculableness  of  its 
extent. 

How  precious  also  are  thy  thoughts^  unto  me,  O  God  ! 

How  great  is  the  sum  of  them ! 

If  I  should  count  them,  they  are  more  in  number  than  the  sand : 

When  I  awake,  I  am  still  with  thee. 

The  new  thought  has  gained  force,  and  takes  fire  in  a  burst  of 
purity. 

Surely  thou  wilt  slay  the  wicked,  O  God : 

Depart  from  me  therefore,  ye  bloodthirsty  men. 

For  they  speak  against  thee  wickedly, 

And  thine  enemies  take  thy  name  in  vain. 

Do  not  I  hate  them,  O  Lord,  that  hate  thee? 

And  am  not  I  grieved  with  those  that  rise  up  against  thee? 

I  hate  them  with  perfect  hatred : 

I  count  them  mine  enemies. 

The  new  train  of  thought  has  reached  its  goal,  and,  as  the  enve- 
lope figure  completes  itself,  the  refrain  reappears  changed  and 
enlarged,  so  that  the  burden  has  become  an  aspiration. 

1  That  is,  the  thoughts  which  God  bestows  on  the  psalmist, 


80  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Search  me,  O  God,  and  know  my  heart : 

Try  me,  and  know  my  thoughts : 

And  see  if  there  be  any  way  of  wickedness  in  me, 

And  lead  me  in  the  way  everlasting. 

The  analysis  of  this  psalm  is  an  excellent  illustration,  both  of 
the  general  principle  that  the  most  deeply  spiritual  trains  of  thought 
are  reflected  in  beauty  of  external  literary  structure,  and  also  of  the 
special  observation  immediately  under  discussion,  that  parallelism 
carries  with  it  the  literary  effect  of  climax  or  surprise  when  the 
exactness  of  the  parallelism  is  artistically  violated. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE    LOWER    AND    THE    HIGHER    UNITY    IN    LITERATURE 

Literary  classification  has  so  far  been  applied  only  to  the  exter- 
nal structure  of  Sacred  Scripture,  and  its  distinction  of  prose  and 
verse  ;  though  it  has  appeared  that  here,  as  always,   ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^.^^ 
structure  reacts   on  spirit,  and  the  parallelism  of  and  the  Higher 
rhythm  generates  a  parallelism  of  thought.     Before   ^°^*y 
we  can  proceed  to  that  higher  literary  classification  which  recog- 
nises structure  and  spirit  alike,  another  preliminary  consideration 
needs  attention.     The    bond   uniting  clauses   into  a   verse   and! 
verses  into  a  stanza  may  be  considered  as  the  Lower  Unity  in  I 
comparison   with  a  Higher  Unity  which   is   the   subject   of  the 
present  chapter.     This  Higher  Unity  is  the  Unity  of  Poem  :  the 
bond  which  unites  successive  verses  and  stanzas  into  a  poem  com 
plele  in  itself.^ 

Here  again  are  difficulties  special  to  the  literary  study  of  the 

Bible,  arising  from  the  arrangement  of  our  printed  bibles  and  of 

the  manuscripts  on  which  they  are  founded,  and  still 

,      ,     ,  •        r         1  •  ,  •   ,     ,  11  The  Higher 

more  from  the  habits  of  readmg  which  these  by  long  unity  obscured 

tradition  have  fostered.     In  dealing  with  any  other   t)y  reading  the 

,.  ,  ,  ,,  11  1  Bible  in  verses 

literature   the   student  would    naturally,  and  as  a 
matter  of  course,  look  for  the  higher  unity  in  what  he  reads.     He 
would  not  study  Virgil  merely  to  get  quotable  hexameters,  nor 
Shakespeare  to  find  pithy  sentences  :  he  would  wish  to  compre- 
hend the  drift  of  a  scene,  or  the  plot  of  a  whole  play ;  he  would 

1  For  convenience  of  illustration  I  speak  throughout  the  chapter  of  poems  :  but 
the  argument  apphes,  mitfafis  mutandis,  to  prose  compositions. 

8i 


I 


82  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATIOX  OF  SCRIPTURE 

read  a  whole  eclogue  at  once,  or  even  sustain  his  attention  through 
the  twelve  books  of  the  ^neid.  But  the  vast  majority  of  those 
Y  who  read  the  Bible  have  never  shaken  off  the  mediaeval  tendency 
to  look  upon  it  as  a  collection  of  isolated  sentences,  isolated  texts, 
isolated  verses.  Their  intention  is  nothing  but  reverent ;  but  the 
effect  of  their  imperfect  reading  is  to  degrade  a  sacred  literature 
into  a  pious  scrap-book. 

I  have  called  this  tendency  mediaeval :  it  is  a  relic  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  under  the  influence  of  which  arose  our  earliest  translations 
_, .  ^    ,  of  the  Bible  into  modern  tongues.     The  thought  of 

This  tendency  a  .  . 

relic  of  mediaeval  the  Middle  Ages  is  distinguished  by  disconnected- 
influence  ness.  The  Schoolmen  were  not  remarkable  for 
successful  investigation  or  wide  reflectiveness,  but  they  surpassed 
all  men  in  subtlety  of  discussion ;  indeed,  it  would  almost  seem 
that  with  them  the  process  of  discussing  was  more  important  than 
the  conclusion  attained.  Accordingly  their  age  gave  special 
prominence  to  the  isolated  proposition.  Its  thinkers  were  not 
confined  to  books  as  a  medium  for  expressing  thought ;  it  was 
equally  open  to  them  to  issue  a  series  of  propositions,  and,  setting 
these  up  on  some  church  door  or  elsewhere,  offer  discussion  with 
all  comers.  To  formulate  truth  into  these  brief  independent 
sentences,  adapted  for  attack  and  defence,  made  the  characteris- 
tic literary  activity  of  the  period.  In  modern  thought  detail 
truths  are  so  many  bricks  to  be  built  into  an  edifice,  each  valued 
according  as  it  contributes  to  the  common  stability ;  the  inde- 
pendent propositions  of  the  mediaeval  thinker  were  rather  footballs 
to  be  driven  to  and  fro  in  an  exercise  of  dialectic  strength. 
Translations  of  the  Bible  made  amid  such  surroundings  took 
shape  from  the  minds  of  the  translators.  Hebrew  and  Greek  lit- 
erature —  poem,  dialogue,  discourse  —  all  assumed  a  monotonous 
uniformity  of  numbered  sentences,  each  to  be  treated  as  a  good 
saying  in  itself,  rather  than  a  component  part  of  a  literary  whole. 

The  influence  of  these  earliest  translations  is  still  felt.  There 
are  three  versions  of  the  Bible  in  familiar  use  amongst  us  :  one 
is  the  recent  '  Revised  Version '  \    a  second  is  the  '  Authorised 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  83 

Version,'  executed  under  King  James  I ;   while  for  a  third  the 

earHer  translation  of  Coverdale  is  represented  in  the  Psalter  of 

the  Prayer  Book,     These  three  versions  stand  at  Tj^ree  popular 

three    different   points   of  the   line    separating   us   versions  of  the 

from  the  Middle  Ages  :  Coverdale's  translation  was   ^^^^^ 

executed  wholly  amid   mediaeval  surroundings ;  ^  the  Authorised 

Version  belongs  to  the  borderland  between  mediaeval  and  modem, 

while  the  Revised  Version  is  entirely  modern.     When  these  three 

translations  are  compared  what  is  the  result?     If  similar  in  what 

the  comparison  be  made  in  respect  of  phraseology   concerns  the 

and  single  verses  there   will   be    litde   to    choose   ^ower  unity 

between  the   three  :    the  earliest  will  strike  our  sense  of  beauty 

quite  as  much  as  the  latest.     But  when  attention  is  given  to  the 

connection  between  verse  and  verse,  to  the  drift  of  an  argument 

and  the  general  unity  of  a  whole  poem,  only  the 

^      .      ,    °       .  .„    ,       ^         ,       ,-   ,  ,  ,         '     1        The 'Revised 

Revised  Version  will  be  found  reliable  ;  the  reader  version  '  stands 

of  the  Authorised  Version,  when  he  wishes  to  catch  alone  as  regards 

,  1  •  /•         1     1  •     1  1  r   the  Higher  Unity 

the  teaching  of  a  whole  epistle,  or  the  sequence  or 

thought  in  a  minor  prophet,  must  go  to  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 

to  find  out  what  his  English  version  means. 

It  is  most  important  for  the  English  student  of  the  Bible  to 
remember  that  these  versions  are  different  in  kind,  and  must 
therefore  not  be  discussed  as  if  they  represented  different  degrees 
of  success  in  attaining  a  common  object.  It  will  be  well  to 
emphasise  this  matter  by  examples. 

Let  our  first  example  be  taken  from  the  translation  of  Cover- 
dale.     The  eighteenth  psalm  will  be  specially  suit- 
able for  our  purpose,  because  in  the  case  of  this  Player  Book  ver- 

^     ^         '  sion  compared 

poem  the  Authorised  and   Revised  versions   sub-   with  the  other 

stantially   agree  :    moreover   the    impression    they  *^° 

JO!  f  J     Psalm  xviu 

give    of  the   psalm  —  that    of  a   thanksgiving   for 

recent  deliverance  —  is  one  not  open  to  dispute,  inasmuch  as  the 

1  Coverdale's  version  is  in  actual  date  (1535)  earlier  than  A.  V.  by  three-quarters 
of  a  century;  in  spirit  it  is  earlier  still,  being  avowedly  not  original,  but  founded 
upon  previous  '  interpretations.'  See  Dr.  W.  F.  Moulton's  History  of  the  English 
Bible  (Cassell),  chapters  vii  and  viii. 


84  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

poem  is  cited  at  full  length  in  the  book  of  Samuel,  and  is  there 
expressly  connected  with  the  escape  of  David  from  the  persecution 
of  Saul.  As  we  read  in  the  Authorised  or  Revised  versions,  every 
line  of  the  poem  carries  out  this  idea.  At  the  commencement 
epithets  of  adoration  succeed  one  another  with  an  exuberance  of 
diction  that  is  like  a  flourish  of  trumpets  opening  some  seit  piece 
of  music.  With  the  fourth  verse  the  psalm  settles  down  to  its 
regular  movement,  and  in  subdued  tones  describes  the  perilous 
extremity  out  of  which  the  singer  has  found  deliverance. 

The  sorrows  of  death  compassed  me,  and  the  floods  of  ungodly  men 
made  me  afraid. 

The  sorrows  of  hell  compassed  me  about;  the  snares  of  death  pre- 
vented rrie. 

In  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  Lord,  and  cried  unto  my  God :  he 
heard  my  voice  out  of  his  temple,  and  my  cry  came  before  him, 
even  into  his  ears. 

Then  a  burst  of  imagery  rushes  upon  us,  sustained  through  nine 
verses,  presenting  all  nature  agitated  to  its  centre  as  the  Almighty 
descends  to  the  help  of  the  sufferer  who  has  called  upon  him. 
A  strain  of  tenderness  comes  in  with  the  deliverance  itself. 

He  sent  from  alcove,  he  took  me,  he,  drew  me  out  of  many  waters. 
He  delivered  me  from  my  strong  enemy,  and  from  them  which  hated 

me :   for  they  were  too  strong  for  me. 
They  prevented  me  in  the  day  of  my  calamity :  but  the  Lord  was  my 

stay. 
He  brought  me  forth  also  into  a  large  place;   he  delivered  me,  because 

he  delighted  in  me. 

With  the  last  clause  the  conception  has  widened.  The  poet  con- 
siders that  with  his  personal  deliverance  the  cause  of  righteous- 
ness has  triumphed,  and  so  he  is  led  to  the  generalisation  : 

With  the  merciful  thou  wilt  shew  tliyself  merciful;    with  an  upright 

man  thou  wilt  shew  thyself  upright. 
With  the  pure  thou  wilt  shew  thyself  pure :  and  with  the  froward  thou 

wilt  shew  thvself  froward. 


THE   HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  85 

The  latter  half  of  the  psalm  no  less  clearly  carries  on  the  concep- 
tion of  the  earlier  half;  review  of  past  deliverances  carries  with 
it  confidence  for  the  future,  when  whole  nations  will  run  in  sub- 
mission to  the  conqueror  marked  out  by  Divine  favour.  Towards 
the  close  the  rapture  of  the  opening  verses  reappears  : 

The  Lord  liveth :  and  blessed  be  my  rock;   and  let  the  God  of  my  sal- 
vation be  exalted. 

Then  in  the  very  last  line,  like  the  signature  to  a  document,  comes 
the  name  of  '  David,'  at  once  the  singer  and  the  hero  of  the  song. 
Let  the  reader  now  study  this  psalm  in  the  Psalter  of  the 
Prayer  Book.  Let  him  remember  what  is  the  exact  point  of  the 
present  argument.  If  he  takes  any  particular  verse,  he  will  find 
it  just  as  striking  in  the  translation  of  Coverdale  as  in  the  later 
versions ;  it  will  be  when  he  proceeds  to  note  the  linking  of  verse 
to  verse  that  the  difference  will  appear.  At  the  third  verse  (in 
the  numbering  of  the  Prayer  Book)  the  psalm  appears,  as  in 
the  other  version,  to  start  upon  the  description  of  a  perilous 
extremity. 

The  sorrows  of  death  compassed  me :  and  the  overflowings  of  ungod- 
liness made  me  afraid. 
The  pains  of  hell  came  about  me :   the  snares  of  death  overtook  me. 

But  when  we  pass  to  the  next  verse,  instead  of  a  continuation  of 
the  description,  we  find  a  general  statement. 

In  my  trouljle  I  will  call  upon  the   Lord  :    and  complain  unto  my  God. 

Of  course,  if  a  reader  has  come  to  his  Bible  simply  as  a  store- 
house of  good  words,  he  may  find  as  great  a  spiritual  stimulus  in 
the  declaration,  "I  will  call  upon  the  Lord,"  as  in  the  statement, 
"  I  did  call  upon  the  Lord."  But  to  the  reader  of  a  sacred  liter- 
ature this  substitution  in  the  Prayer  Book  Version  of  future  tense 
for  past  has  destroyed  the  connection  of  the  verses,  and  the 
unity  is  gone.  Again,  at  the  seventh  verse  Coverdale's  translation 
returns  to  the  tense  of  description  ;    but  at  verse  i6 — just  where 


86  LITERARY   CLASS/flCATIOX   OF  SCRIFTCRE 

in  the  other  case  we  found  the  actual  deliverance  come  in  —  we 
are  thrown  back  upon  general  expressions  : 

He  shall  send  down  from  on  high  to  fetch  me,  etc. 

In  verse  i8  we  read,  '^Thty  prevented  rae"  but  in  verse  20,  "The 
Lord  shall  reward  me "  :  and  so  throughout  the  poem  past, 
present,  future  tenses  are  indiscriminately  mingled.  What  does 
this  mean?  That  the  translator  was  a  bungler?  Certainly  not : 
every  verse,  with  its  felicity  of  diction  and  beauty  of  rhythm, 
belies  such  a  suggestion.  The  meaning  is  that  Coverdale  formed 
a  different  conception  of  the  literature  he  was  translating  from 
that  which  both  ourselves  and  the  later  versions  assume.  It  did 
not  belong  to  Coverdale's  age  to  look  upon  a  psalm  as  a  poem 
iwith  a  unity  running  through  it ;  he  understood  it  simply  as  a  col- 
jlection  of  pious  thoughts,  and  he  used  all  his  skill  to  make  each 
thought  as  beautiful  as  the  English  language  would  permit.  He 
has  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  and  given  us  in  the  eighteenth  psalm 
a  chaplet  of  very  pearls  ;  but  it  is  a  chaplet  with  the  string  broken. 
It  is  even  more  important  to  compare  the  Authorised  and 
the  Revised  versions  as  regards  this  matter  of  the  connection 
A  V  comnared  between  verse  and  verse.  Let  the  reader  study 
withR.  V.  in  the  older  translation  the  twenty-eighth  chapter 

Job  xxviii  ^f  j^^^^  ^^^  ggj.  hiniself,  without  the  aid  of  com- 

mentators who  have  had  the  original  before  them,  to  think  out 
from  the  English  alone  the  unity  linking  successive  verses. 

1 .  Surely  there  is  a  vein  for  the  silver,  and  a  place  for  gold  where  they 
fine  it. 

2.  Iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth,  and  brass  is  molten  out  of  the  stone. 

[Already  the  clauses  fall  sweetly  upon  the  ear,  though  the  point  of 
what  is  being  said  is  hardly  yet  apparent.] 

3.  He  setteth  an  end  to  darkness,  and  searcheth  out  all  perfection : 
the  stones  of  darkness,  and  the  shadow  of  death. 

[This  seems  like  some  very  general  glorification  of  God  :  but  the 
drift  of  the  whole  is  still  vague.] 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  87 

4.  The  flood  breaketh  out  from  the  inhabitant;  even  the  waters 
forgotten  of  the  foot :  they  are  dried  up,  they  are  gone  away  from 
men. 

[Can  any  dear  sense  be  attached  to  these  words?  The  only 
certainty  seems  to  be  that  they  have  no  connection  with  the 
preceding  verse,  as  that  had  none  with  what  went  before.  Yet 
the  words  which  immediately  follow  seem  to  announce  a  new 
topic] 

5.  As  for  the  earth,  out  of  it  cometh  bread:  and  under  it  is  turned  up 
as  it  were  fire. 

6.  The  stones  of  it  are  the  place  of  sapphires :  and  it  hath  dust  of 
gold. 

[Various  as  are  the  topics  presented  so  far,  yet  the  next  words 
announce  one  more.] 

7.  There  is  a  path  which  no  fowl  knoweth,  and  which  the  vulture's 
eye  hath  not  seen  : 

8.  The  lion's  whelps  have  not  trodden  it,  nor  the  fierce  lion  passed 
by  it. 

9.  He  putteth  forth  his  hand  — 

[Apparently  we  have  here  returned  to  the  general  glorification  of 
God  in  nature  upon  which  the  third  verse  touched.] 

9.  He  putteth  forth  his  hand  upon  the  rock;  he  overturneth  the 
mountains  by  the  roots. 

10.  He  cutteth  out  rivers  among  the  rocks;  and  his  eye  seeth  every 
precious  thing. 

11.  He  bindeth  the  floods  from  overflowing;  and  the  thing  that  is 
hid  bringeth  he  forth  to  light. 

At  this  point,  in  place  of  a  string  of  distinct  topics,  we  suddenly 
come  upon  a  train  of  connected  reasoning.  Where,  asks  the 
speaker,  shall  wisdom  be  found?  and,  after  searching  all  possible 
sources,  and  weighing  wisdom  against  every  form  of  wealth,  he 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  only  God  knows  the  origin  of  wis- 
dom, and  that  he  who  created  the  universe  interwove  righteous- 
ness  into  its  structure.     Is  it  not  strange  that  within  the  limits 


88  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

of  the  same  chapter  should  be  found,  first  the  wandering  from 
topic  to  topic,  and  then  the  coherent  working  from  question  to 
answer?  Yet  more  strange  that  the  discordant  halves  of  the 
chapter  should  be  linked  by  the  conjunction  But? 

Now  let  the  same  passage  be  read  in  the  Revised  Version. 

Surely  there  is  a  mine  — 

[At  the  very  outset  has  come  the  key  word  to  the  whole.] 

Surely  there  is  a  mine  for  silver, 

And  a  place  for  gold  which  they  refine. 

Iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth, 

And  brass  is  molten  out  of  the  stone. 

Man  setteth  an  end  to  darkness, 

[What  we  are  reading  is  not  a  description  of  God,  but  of  the 

miner.] 

And  searcheth  out  to  the  furthest  bound 

The  stones  of  thick  darkness  and  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

He  breaketh  open  a  shaft  away  from  where  men  sojourn; 

They  are  forgotten  of  the  foot  that  passeth  by; 

They  hang  afar  from  men,  they  swing  to  and  fro. 

[We  can  almost  see  the  miner  descending  in  his  cage  into  the 
depths  of  the  earth,  far  beneath  the  heedless  passers-by  on  the 
surface.     And  now  a  relevancy  appears  for  the  next  verse.] 

As  for  the  earth,  out  of  it  cometh  bread : 

And  underneath  it  is  turned  up  as  it  were  by  fire. 

The  stones  thereof  are  the  place  of  sapphires, 

And  it  hath  dust  of  gold. 

That  path  — 

[Of  course,  the  path  of  the  miner  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.] 

That  path  no  bird  of  prey  knoweth. 

Neither  hath  the  falcon's  eye  seen  it : 

The  proud  lieasts  have  not  trodden  it, 

Nor  hath  the  fierce  lion  passed  thereby. 

He  putteth  forth  his  band  upon  the  flinty  rock; 

[It  is  Still  the  miner  that  is  spoken  of.] 


THE  HIGHER   UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  89 

He  overturneth  the  mountains  by  the  roots; 

He  cutteth  out  channels  among  the  rocks; 

And  his  eye  seeth  every  precious  thing. 

He  bindeth  the  streams  that  they  trickle  not; 

And  the  thing  that  is  hid  bringeth  he  forth  to  light. 

Read  in  a  version  which  brings  the  idea  of  connected  literature  to 
bear  upon  the  Bible,  the  passage  which  before  seemed  a  series 
of  disconnected  sayings  is  seen  to  resolve  itself  into  a  simple  unity, 
—  a  brilliant  picture  of  mining  operations.  Nay,  the  whole  chap- 
ter now  becomes  a  unity,  for  we  catch  the  connection  of  its  two 
halves  :  there  are  mines  out  of  which  men  dig  gold  and  silver  and 
precious  stones,  but  where  is  the  mine  out  of  which  we  may  bring 
wisdom  ? 

It  is  impossible  to  insist  too  strongly  upon  this  difference  be- 
tween the  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible  and  its  predecessors,  a 
difference  of  kind  and  not  of  degree,  and  one  which  ^^^^  ^  ^  ^^_ 
is  as  wide  as  the  distinction  between  the  words  sentiai  for  liter- 
'text'  and  'context.'  The  English  reader  need  ^i^y study 
not  feel  any  difficulty  on  the  ground  of  the  disfavour  with  which 
the  Revised  Version  has  in  many  quarters  been  received.  Such 
reception  has  been  the  regular  fate  of  revisions  from  St.  Jerome's 
day  downwards.  The  Authorised  Version  had  itself  to  encounter 
the  same  opposition.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a  full  half  century 
before  this  work  of  King  James's  translators  came  into  general 
use  ;  and  in  the  interval  we  have  on  record  the  opinion  of  a 
scholar  and  divine,  who,  asked  by  the  king,  declared  he  would 
be  torn  by  wild  horses  rather  than  urge  so  badly  executed  a  ver- 
sion upon  the  churches.  The  whole  discussion  of  the  subject 
seems  to  me  to  have  been  conducted  on  a  wrong  footing.  The 
critics  will  take  single  verses  or  expressions,  and,  as  it  were,  test 
them  with  their  mental  palate  to  see  whether  the  literary  flavour 
of  the  old  or  the  new  be  superior.  But  comparisons  of  this  kind 
are  a  sheer  impossibihty.  No  one,  least  of  all  a  cultured  critic, 
can  separate  in  his  mind  between  the  sense  of  beauty  which  comes 
from  association,  and  the  beauty  which  is  intrinsic  ;  the  softening 


90  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

effect  of  time  and  familiarity  is  needed  before  any  translation  can 
in  word  and  phrase  assume  the  even  harmony  of  a  classic.  Mean- 
while the  consideration  here  contended  for  —  the  unique  excel- 
lence of  the  Revised  Version  in  the  matter  of  connectedness  and 
the  Higher  Unity — is  beyond  dispute.  The  true  issue  between  the 
Authorised  and  the  Revised  versions  is  the  question  whether 
the  Bible  is  to  be  treated  as  a  collection  of  sayings,  each  verse  an 
independent  whole,  or  whether  the  first  duty  of  an  interpreter  is 
to  associate  a  text  with  its  context.  What  answer  the  theologian 
will  return  to  this  question  it  is  not  the  province  of  this  book  to 
determine.  But  speaking  from  the  literary  point  of  view,  I  make 
bold  to  say  that  the  reader  who  confines  himself  to  the  Authorised 
Version  excludes  himself  from  half  the  beauty  of  the  Bible. 

To  vindicate  the  importance  of  the  Higher  Unity  in  applica- 
tion to  Biblical  Hterature  is  our  first  duty.  Our  second  is  to 
The  H'  her  Un"tv  §^^^^*^  ourselves  from  forming  too  limited  a  con- 
assumes  variety  ception  of  it.  When  we  try  to  think  out  the 
of  form  connectedness  of  some  sacred  poem  or  discourse, 

we  must  be  prepared  to  find  its  unity  assuming  forms  other  than 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  literature  of  the  present  day. 

The  simplest  type  of  unity  is  where  a  whole  poem  is  no  more 

than  the  working  out  of  a  single  idea.     I  have  had  occasion  in  a 

former  chapter  to  cite  the  hundred  and  tourteenth 

J^F^^J^l  psalm,  and  have  shown  how  it  connects  the  deliv- 

Psalm  cxiv  r  > 

erance  from  Egypt  with  the  new  conception  of  a 
Deity  accompanying  with  his  presence  a  journeying  nation. 
Every  line  of  the  psalm  is  filled  with  this  idea ;  there  is  no  other 
thought  in  the  poem.     A  unity  so  clear  presents  no  difficulty. 

Again,  I  have  in  the  chapter  immediately  preceding  this  ana- 
lysed the  hundred  and  thirty-ninth  psalm.  This  is  a  lyric  of  fifty- 
Unity  of  Transi-  ^^^'°  ^^^^^  '  ^^^  opening  and  closing  thoughts  are 
tion  antagonistic   to   one   another,   the    Divine    Omni- 

Psaimcxxxix  presence  being  dreaded  in  the  one  case  and  in  the 
other  case  desired.     Yet  the  poem  presents  no  difficulty  in  regard 


Unity  of  Contrast 
and  Antithesis 
Psalm 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  IITERATURE  91 

to  the  connection  of  its  thought,  for  we  were  able  to  see  the  exact 
point  where  the  one  train  of  feeUng  began  to  change  into  the 
other.     The  psahn  is  made  one  by  the  Unity  of  Transition. 

A  more  difficult  case  arises  where  a  portion  of  literature  is  seen 
to  commence  with  one  topic,  to  end  with  a  topic  entirely  different, 
while  no  part  of  it  can  be  indicated  as  conveying 
a  transition  from  the  one  set  of  ideas  to  the  other. 
A  notable  instance  is  the  much  discussed  nine- 
teenth psalm.  The  first  six  verses  of  this  psalm  are  entirely  occu- 
pied with  the  heavens  above  our  heads.  Their  starry  marvels  are 
conceived  as  a  silent  language  in  which  the  whole  world  day  by 
day  may  read  of  a  Creator ;  the  extended  sky  is  pictured  as  the 
tent  of  a  hero,  and  this  hero  is  the  Sun,  who,  forever  at  his  best, 
runs  his  daily  course,  scattering  the  mighty  heat  which  no  corner 
of  the  earth  can  escape.  Passing  to  the  next  verse  we  find  our- 
selves without  any  warning  in  a  totally  different  set  of  ideas. 

The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  restoring  the  soul : 

The  testimony  of  the  Lord  is  sure,  making  wise  the  simple : 

The  precepts  of  the  Lord  are  right,  rejoicing  the  heart : 

The  commandment  of  the  Lord  is  pure,  enlightening  the  eyes. 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  clean,  enduring  for  ever : 

The  judgements  of  the  Lord  are  true,  and  righteous  altogether. 

With  topics  so  different,  and  no  sign  of  any  links  to  connect  them, 
what  has  become  of  the  Higher  Unity?  The  answer  is  that  it  is  to 
be  looked  for  in  this  very  absence  of  transition  :  we  have  here  a 
literary  effect  which  may  be  called  the  Unity  of  Contrast  or  Antith- 
esis. The  point  of  the  poem  may  be  summed  up  as  the  equal  ado- 
ration side  by  side  of  the  physical  and  the  moral  law.  No  literary 
device  could  make  the  equality  of  the  two  so  forcible  as  this  simple 
placing  of  them  side  by  side  without  a  word  of  explanation. 

No  doubt  this  is  a  matter  in  which  difference  of  opinion  arises ; 
and  its  discussion  is  of  importance  as  going  down 
to  fundamental  principles  of  literary  criticism.     It  is  of  pgaim  xix 
urged,  by  those  who  speak  with  the  highest  author- 
ity, that  the  disparity  between  the  two  parts  of  this  nineteenth 


T 


92  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

psalm  is  too  great  to  be  covered  by  any  unity  of  idea  ;  that  we  are 
therefore  driven  to  the  supposition  that  the  connection  of  these 
two  pieces  of  literature  has  been  effected  by  those  through 
whose  hands  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  have  passed  on  their  way 
to  us.  The  contention  is  further  supported  by  the  plea  that  these 
two  sections  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  differ  in  more  than  subject- 
matter  :  they  represent  literary  styles  that  are  totally  different, 
styles  moreover  that  are  seen  upon  a  wide  sur\^ey  of  Biblical 
literature  to  distinguish  respectively  an  early  and  a  late  literary 
period. 

I  do  not  dispute  these  allegations.     But  in  resisting  the  infer- 
ence derived  from  them  I  would  commence  by  deprecating  the 

confusion    so    commonly    made  —  if  not    by   the 
Questions  of  au-  ....  ,  ,  .  - 

thorship  not  an      critics   themselves,  yet   by  a   large   proportion  of 

essential  part  of     their  readers — between  two  things  which  should 
be  kept  entirely  separate  :   the  confusion  between 


literary  unity  and  unity  of  autho^hip.  Indeed,  IT  Irnay  widen 
the  discussion  for  a  moment,  I  should  like  to  express  the  opinion 
that  the  whole  study  of  literature  is  placed  at  a  disadvantage  by 
the  intrusion  into  it  of  quite  a  distinct  thing  —  the  study  of  authors. 
A  piece  of  literature  is  apt  to  be  put  before  us  as  a  performance 
of  some  author :  we  are  expected  to  examine  it  with  a  view  to 
applauding  or  censuring  this  author ;  we  are  minutely  informed  as 
to  the  circumstances  under  which  he  did  his  work  ;  one  production 
of  his  is  associated  with  companion  productions,  as  if  the  main 
raison  tfetre  of  them  all  was  to  enable  us  to  form  an  estimate  of 
the  man  who  produced  them.  All  this  may  be  good  in  itself;  but 
it  is  not  the  study  of  literature.  Authors  of  books  may  in  them- 
selves be  as  well  worthy  our  attention  as  statesmen  or  commercial 
magnates  ;  but  no  one  confuses  Constitutional  History  with  biogra- 
phies of  politicians,  or  Political  Economy  with  the  business  his- 
tories of  particular  firms.  And  I  believe  that  the  study  of  literature 
will  never  reach  its  proper  level  until  it  is  realised  that  literature 
is  an  entity  in  itself,  as  well  as  a  function  of  the  individuals  who 
contributed  to  it ;  that  it  has  a  development  and  critical  principles 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  93 

of  its  own,  to  be  considered  independently  of  any  questions  affect- 
ing the  performance  of  particular  authors. 

To  return  to  the  case  immediately  before  us.     It  might  seem  a 
self-evident  contention  that  the  assignment  of  different  ages   to 
different  parts  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  implied  diversity  of  author- 
ship.    I  would  rather  say  that  we  are  separated  Authorship  in 
from  the  literature  in  question  by  an  interval  so   application  to 
wide  as  to  raise  a  doubt  whether  the  term  '  author-   biblical  poetry 
ship  '  in  application  to  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Bible  be  not  alto- 
gether an  anachronism. 

We  live  in  the  age  of  books  ;  not  only  so,  but  we  have  travelled 
so  far  into  this  book  age  that  we  have  forgotten  the  times  when 
literature  was  affected  by  anything  else  than  our  habits  of  written 
composition.  Yet  the  study  of  Comparative  Literature  reveals 
everywhere  a  period  of  literary  activity  long  preceding  the  earliest 
book ;  a  floating  poetry  destined  to  influence  periods  much  later 
than  its  own,  yet  preserved  only  by  oral  tradition  without  any  aid 
from  writing,  while  the  processes  of  its  composition  have  been 
regulated  entirely  by  the  phenomena  of  spoken  literature.  How- 
ever widely  apart  we  may  date  the  different  parts  of  the  Bible,  yet 
the  whole  approaches  much  more  closely  the  influences  of  this 
early  spoken  poetry  than  the  modern  literatures  from  which  we 
draw  our  ideas. 

It  is  precisely  in  the  matter  of  this  relationship  between  literature 
and  '  authors  '  that  the  difference  between  early  and  late  poetry  is 
most  apparent.  The  change  which  the  ages  have  brought  about 
in  our  conception  of  authorship  is  not  unlike  the  change  that  has 
come  over  our  conception  of  land.  Our  late  civilisation  takes  for 
granted  the  idea  of  individual  ownership  of  land.  But  we  know 
that  to  primitive  society  this  idea  was  unthinkable  :  land  belonged 
to  the  community,  and  all  that  individuals  could  have  would  be 
rights  over  the  land.  Similarly  we  associate  a  book  with  an  individ- 
ual author  ;  we  sacredly  guard  the  written  book  as  his  property ; 
if  the  author  alters  it  it  becomes  a  new  '  edition,'  while  if  the  author 
be  dead  the  form  of  the  book  is  fixed  forever  and  no  one  may 


94  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

touch  it.  But  for  the  floating  literature  of  spoken  poetry  composi- 
tion was  in  the  hands  of  a  class  of  bards  and  minstrels,  or,  shall  we 
say,  of  priests  and  sacred  singers  ;  what  each  individual  produced 
was  regarded  as  common  property,  which  his  brethren  used  with- 
out any  sense  of  indebtedness.  In  using  one  another's  composi- 
tions they  revised  and  altered  them,  until  each  delivery  of  a  poem 
might  make  a  fresh  '  edition ' ;  and  thus  the  composition  of  any 
poem  was  a  growth  extending  through  generation  after  generation, 
and  the  united  product  of  many  minds. 

Now  the  psalms  of  the  Bible  were  the  product  of  individual 
poets,  but  of  poets  living  in  periods  when  the  influences  of  floating 
literature  were  largely  felt  in  determining  habits  of  composition. 
And  this  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  every  discussion  of  the  subject. 
It  is  common  to  speak  of  David's  '  writing '  a  psalm :  the  phrase 
is  full  of  misleading  associations.  We  cannot  even  assume  that 
writing,  though  used  for  many  purposes,  was  in  David's  time 
applied  to  the  preservation  of  poetical  productions ;  but  we  may 
be  quite  certain  that  the  early  psalmists  did  not,  like  nineteenth 
century  poets,  think  with  pen  in  hand.  Are  we  again  to  suppose 
that  Hebrew  poets  when  they  composed  a  psalm  entered  it  at 
some  Stationers'  Hall,  with  all  rights  reserved?  We  know  the 
very  opposite  :  the  authors  of  our  psalms  would  send  their  poems 
"  to  the  Chief  Musician  upon  stringed  instruments,"  or  to  "  the 
Sons  of  Korah."  That  is  to  say,  these  Biblical  psalms  when 
composed  were  committed  to  the  custody  of  a  body  of  minstrels 
or  sacred  singers,  and  so  may  be  expected  to  present  the  phe- 
nomena of  oral  poetry  in  addition  to  the  features  of  individual 
authorship.  Thus  the  psalms  of  the  Bible  in  their  composition 
unite  the  advantages  that  belong  to  early  and  to  late  poetry  :  the 
psalm  as  it  leaves  the  original  poet  is  not  a  fixed  thing,  it  is  only 
just  started  on  a  career  of  life  in  the  hands  of  living  performers, 
through  whom  it  can  draw  to  itself  the  best  thoughts  of  the  ages 
through  which  it  is  to  pass.  These  later  modifications  may  be 
merely  matters  of  phraseology  or  greater  fulness  of  diction  ;  they 
may  be  distinct  additions,  like   the  final  verses  of  the  fifty-first 


THE   HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  95 

psalm,  which  make  a  poem  of  personal  penitence  serve  also  as  an 
expression  of  national  humiliation.  Or  they  may  even  amount  to 
such  a  transformation  as  the  nineteenth  psalm  seems  to  have 
undergone,  when  the  original  song  of  the  heavens,  touching  an 
age  of  enthusiasm  for  the  law,  inspired  the  thought  that  what  the 
Sun  is  to  the  world  without,  God's  law  is  to  the  world  within.  If 
we  assume  David  to  be  the  '  author '  of  the  first  six  verses,  then 
no  one  has  a  better  right  than  David  to  be  considered  the  '  author  ' 
of  the  fresh  thoughts  his  words  have  inspired.  Or  the  original 
song  might  be  considered  the  '  author '  of  the  additions  it  has 
begotten  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  used  it.  But  it  would 
be  still  better  to  say  that  the  whole  idea  of  '  authorship '  is  a 
conception  proper  to  modern  literature,  and  can  do  nothing  but 
mislead  when  applied  to  the  wider  literary  phenomena  of  the 
Bible. 

But  I  am  comparatively  indifferent  as  to  whether  the*  reader 
does  or  does  not  accept  this  conclusion  with  reference  to  the 
authorship  of  the  poem.     What  I  am  concerned' 

.-   Diversity  of 

to  msist  upon  is  that  diversity  of  authorship — if  authorship  not 
such  there  be  —  is  no  bar  to  the  literary  unity  of  inconsistent  with 

1  ■  1  1  rm  •  ...  literary  unity 

the  nineteenth  psalm.  This  consideration  again 
demands  the  wider  conception  of  literature  that  belongs  to 
antiquity.  Let  an  illustration  be  permitted.  If  a  man  enquires 
as  to  the  building  of  some  modern  dwelling-house,  he  will  proba- 
bly be  able  to  learn  the  year  in  which  it  was  built  and  the  name 
of  the  architect.  It  will  be  different  if  he  applies  his  investigation 
to  some  great  cathedral.  The  original  architect  of  the  cathedral 
himself  completed  (we  will  suppose)  the  choir  and  transepts,  and 
built  them  in  the  Early  English  style.  Then  the  work  stood  still 
for  several  generations  ;  when  the  nave  was  added  the  whole  style 
of  architecture  had  changed.  The  west  front  has  been  added 
later  still,  and  reflects  details  of  a  later  age.  But  the  original 
architect  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  pull  down  the  whole  of  the 
church  his  cathedral  was  superseding ;  and  hence  we  find  a  beau- 
tiful Norman  doorway  in  the  middle  of  the  Early  English  portion 


96  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATIOX   OF  SCRIPTURE 

of  the  building.  And  the  sexton  takes  the  visitor  down  to  the 
crypt  and  shows  him  fragments  of  a  yet  earher  Saxon  church  that 
had  stood  on  the  same  spot.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  building  that 
displays  five  different  architectural  styles,  the  product  of  five  dif- 
ferent ages  :  do  we  call  such  a  building  five  cathedrals  or  one 
cathedral  ?  The  psalms  have  the  artistic  range  of  the  cathedral, 
not  of  the  mere  dwelling-house ;  they  reflect  the  literary  archi- 
tecture of  the  many  ages  down  which  they  have  travelled,  and  are 
often  seen  to  have  absorbed  into  themselves  '  oracles '  yet  older 
than  the  date  of  their  first  composition.  But  with  the  psalm,  as 
with  the  cathedral,  none  of  these  circumstances  need  militate 
against  the  artistic  unity  of  the  whole. 

The  Uterary  unity,  then,  of  this  nineteenth  psalm  becomes  a 
question  of  the  ideas  underlying  its  two  parts,  and  of  the  mode 
in  which  these  ideas  are  brought  together.  For  the  ideas  them- 
selves, \he  union  in  one  thought  of  the  physical  and  the  moral 
universe  has  appealed  to  many  minds.     It  is  as  old  as  Zoroaster : 

He  who  first  planned  that  these  skies  should  be  clothed  with  lights, 
He  by  his  wisdom  is  creator  of  Righteousness,  wherewith  to  support  the  best 
mind.^ 

The  philosopher  Kant,  again,  was  wont  to  speak  of  the  two  per- 
petual wonders,  the  starry  heavens  above  and  the  moral  law  within. 
And  a  still  closer  association  of  the  two  ideas  has  inspired  a  line  of 
Wordsworth,  who  says,  addressing  Duty  : 

Thou  dost  presers'e  the  stars  from  wrong; 

And  the  most  ancient  heavens  through  Thee  are  fresh  and  strong. 

That  the  two  worlds  should  in  the  Biblical  poem  be  placed  side  by 
side  without  further  comment  is  surely  intelligible  to  our  aesthetic 
sense.     Art  in  general  recognises  the  simple  con- 
other  examples  ^^  antithesis.     But  more  than  that,  the  very 

of  the  Unity  of 

Antithesis  section  of  art  we  are  considering  —  the  psalms  of 

1  Yasna  xxxi.  9.  I  am  indebted  for  this  parallel  to  Rev.  J.  Hope  Moulton,  Fel- 
low of  King's  College,  Cambridge. 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  97 

the  Bible  —  give  us  other  examples  of  this  same  poetic  device. 
A  closely  analogous  case  is  the  thirty-sixth  psalm, 

,  .   ,     ,  -  ^     ,  Psalm  xxxvi 

which  devotes  four  verses  to  a  picture  of  character 
so  utterly  corrupt  that  evil  has  become  a  law  unto  itself;  and  then 
abruptly,  without  connecting  links,  sets   against   the   dark   back- 
ground of  supreme  evil  a  supreme  good  —  a  loving-kindness  as 
wide  as  the  heavens,  a  righteousness  as  high  as  the  rtiountains, 
judgments  as  profound  as  the  sea,  bounty  as  diffused  as  the  light.^ 
Again,  among  the  '  Songs  of  Ascents '  is  found  a 
short  lyric,  the  thought  of  which  would  be  obscure 
did  we  not  recognise  in  it  one  of  these  antithetic  contrasts  between 
two  types  of  life  —  the  life  of  anxious  toil  and  the  quiet  home 
life  —  made   effective    by   the   simple   juxtaposition  of  the   two 

descriptions. 

Strophe 

Except  the  Lord  build  the  house, 
They  labour  in  vain  that  build  it : 
Except  the  Lord  keep  the  city. 
The  watchman  waketh  but  in  vain. 
It  is  vain  for  you  that  ye  rise  up  early, 
And  so  late  take  rest, 
And  eat  the  bread  of  toil. 

Antistrophe 

So  he  giveth  unto  his  beloved  sleep. 
Lo,  children  are  an  heritage  of  the  Lord  : 
And  the  fruit  of  the  womb  is  his  reward. 
As  arrows  in  the  hand  of  a  mighty  man, 
So  are  the  children  of  youth. 

Happy  is  the  man  that  hath  his  quiver  full  of  them  : 
They  shall  not  be  ashamed  when  thay  speak  with  their  enemies 
in  the  gate. 

Our  examination,  then,  of  this  nineteenth  psalm,  when  once  dis- 
turbing questions  of  authorship  are  laid  aside,  reveals  a  connection 

J  The  parallelism  of  form  between  this  and  the  nineteenth  psalm  is  close  :  besides 
the  main  point  (of  antithesis  without  connecting  links)  there  is  in  both  the  culmi- 
nation of  the  whole  in  prayer. 


9S  LITERARY  C/^ASSIFICATIOX  OF  SCRIPTURE 

of  thought  which  is  both  impressive  in  itself,  and  also  an  addition 
to  the  types  of  Higher  Unity  under  which  Biblical  IjTics  can  be 
classified. 

In  treating  this  general  matter  of  the  Higher  Unity  it  is  necessary 

tomentioTLwhat  may  be  called  the  Unity  of  Aggregation.     This 

'  can  be  brought  out  best  by  the  aid  of  illustrations. 

Unity  of  Aggre-     j^  ^     ^^^      examines  the  Book  of  Pr,rcerbs  and, 

discarding  the  numbering  of  chapters  which  has 

no  literary  significance,  seeks  to  di\-ide  it  into  the  literary  com- 
positions of  which  it  is  made  up,  he  will  be  struck 

ProTerbsxxT.  ^^.^^  ^^  different  relations  in  which  successive 
24-J8 

verses  stand  to  one  another  in  different  parts  of 

the  book.     Let  him.  for  example,  read  the  last  five  verses  of  the 

twent)-fifth  chapter. 

It  is  better  to  dwell  in  the  comer  of  the  housetop, 
Than  with  a  contentions  woman  in  a  wide  house. 


As  cold  waters  to  a  thirsty  soul. 
So  is  good  news  from  a  far  country. 


As  a  troubled  fountain,  and  a  corrupted  spring, 

So  is  a  righteous  man  that  giveth  way  before  the  wicked. 


It  is  not  good  to  eat  much  honey : 

So  for  men  to  search  out  their  own  glory  is  not  glory. 


He  whose  spirit  is  without  restraint 

Is  like  a  city  that  is  broken  donm  and  hath  no  walL 

Nothing  is  plainer  than  that  we  have  here  five  entirely  distinct 
compositions  ;  all  that  the  *'  men  of  Hezekiah  "  have  done  is  to 
collect  them.  Next,  let  the  reader  take  four  verses  that  follow 
one  another  in  the  twenty-sixth  chapter. 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  99 

The  sluggard  saith,  There  is  a  lion  in  the  way;        Proverbs  xxvi. 
A  lion  is  in  the  streets.  13-16 

sit 

As  the  door  turneth  upon  its  hinges, 
So  doth  the  sluggard  upon  his  bed, 

* 

The  sluggard  burieth  his  hand  in  the  dish; 
It  wearieth  him  to  bring  it  again  to  his  mouth. 

The  sluggard  is  wiser  in  his  own  conceit 
Than  seven  men  that  can  render  a  reason. 

Here  again  we  have  entirely  separate  sayings,  but  they  are  all 

sayings  on  the  subject  of  the  sluggard.     The  "  men  of  Hezekiah  " 

have  not  merely  collected,  they  have  in  this  instance 

,     ,     .  T-  1  11        Proverbs  vi.  1-5 

arranged  their  matter.     \ox  completeness  let  the 

reader  turn  to  an  entirely  different  part  of  the  book,  and  read 

(say)  the  first  five  verses  of  chapter  six. 

My  son,  if  thou  art  become  surety  for  thy  neighbour. 

If  thou  hast  stricken  thy  hands  for  a  stranger. 

Thou  art  snared  with  the  words  of  thy  mouth, 

Thou  art  taken  with  the  words  of  thy  mouth.       « 

Do  this  now,  my  son,  and  deliver  thyself, 

Seeing  thou  art  come  into  the  hand  of  thy  neighbour; 

Go,  humble  thyself,  and  importune  thy  neighbour. 

Give  not  sleep  to  thine  eyes,  nor  slumber  to  thine  eyelids. 

Deliver  thyself  as  a  roe  from  the  hand  of  the  hunter. 

And  as  a  bird  from  the  hand  of  the  fowler. 

Here  it  is  clear  that  we  have  no  collection  of  distinct  sayings,  but 
a  single  composition  with  an  organic  unity  of  its  own.  The  sacred 
literature  is  thus  found  to  include  both  what  in  modern  phraseol- 
ogy are  called  original  compositions,  and  also  collections  of  sepa- 
rate brief  compositions  put  together  with  or  without  arrangement. 
The  shorter  sayings  are  obvious  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  But  at 
the  proper  place  we  shall  see  that  they  belong  equally  to  other 
departments  of  Biblical  literature  :  that  Prophecy  includes  short 


IQO  UTERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

prophetic  utterances  collected  together  as  well  as  longer  dis- 
courses, and  that  even  a  Ivric  composition  may  be  constructed  of 
f  separate  lyrics  in  combination.  Many  mistakes  of  interpretation 
may  be  avoided  by  recognising  the  Unity  of  Aggravation. 

One  more  consideration  will  complete  our  classification  of  the 

different  forms  that  may  be  assumed  by  the  Higher  Unity  in  the 

^ '    \  literary  compositions  of  the  Bible.     It  will  some- 

T^^^sxtenai  tjj„^  happen  that  the  connection  binding  the  dif- 
IGncuBstiAccs 
L., y       ferent  parts  of  a  poem  into  a  unity  is  to  be  looked 

for,  not  in  die  poem  itself  but  in  the  external  use  made  of  it.  A 
notaUe  example  is  the  twenty-fourth  psalm.  Any  one  reading  this 
psalm  with  a  view  to  catching  its  general  drift  and 
coimecticm  wiD  be  struck  with  a  break  between  its 
sixth  and  seventh  verses,  at  which  point  diere  is  a  change  both  of 
fcMrm  and  matter  so  considerable  as  inevitably  to  raise  the  doubt 
whether  the  idi<^  psalm  can  be  a  single  composition.  The  diffi- 
culty is  met  by  identifying  the  poem  with  a  particular  ceremonial, 
into  the  different  parts  of  which  the  two  halves  of  the  psalm  fit 
like  a  key  into  the  wards  of  a  lock. 

This  ceremonial  was  die  bringii^  of  die  Ark  to  Jerusalem. 
There  is  perba{»  no  single  day  in  the  &t  distance  of  antiquity 
which  we  are  able  to  follow  with  such  minuteness  as  this  central 
day  of  l^ing  David's  career ;  and  in  a  later  chapter  we  shall  see 
that  an  the  songs  composed  for  the  festival  can  be  recovered. 
The  twenty-fourth  psalm  represents  the  words  of  the  processional 
march  fiom  the  House  of  Obed-Cdom  to  the  Gates  of  Jerusalem. 
There  seem  to  have  been  two  points  in  this  march  at  which  the 
instruments  of  fir  wood,  harps,  psalteries,  timbrels,  castanets  and 
cymbals  gave  place  to  vocal  celebration.  The  first  was  when  the 
procession  halted  at  the  foot  of  the  high  hiU  on  which  the  city 
stood ;  and  here  it  is  diat  the  first  six  verses  of  the  psalm  have 
their  fitnes.  .After  a  burst  of  adoration  to  the  Creator  of  the 
world  —  one  of  the  perfecUy  general  ascriptions  of  praise  with 
which  psalms  so  often  commence  —  the  special  anthem  proceeds 
as  fdlows: 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  101 

Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the  Lord? 
And  who  shall  stand  in  his  holy  place  ? 

He  that  hath  clean  hands,  and  a  pure  heart; 

Who  hath  not  lifted  up  his  soul  unto  vanity, 

And  hath  not  sworn  deceitfully. 
He  shall  receive  a  blessing  from  the  Lord, 
And  righteousness  from  the  God  of  his  salvation. 
This  is  the  generation  of  them  that  seek  after  him, 
That  seek  thy  face,  O  God  of  Jacob. 

The  identification  of  these  words  with  the  occasion  to  which  I  am 
referring  becomes  the  stronger  through  something  which  illustrates 
what  has  been  said  above  as  to  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry,  and 
how  its  composition  did  not  fix  it  in  one  form,  as  our  writing  does, 
but  left  it  scope  to  adapt  itself  in  the  mouths  of  the  singers  who 
preserved  it  to  changes  of  thought  or  circumstances.  We  have  a 
variant  to  the  anthem  just  cited  :  this  is  the  fifteenth  psalm,  and  a 
comparison  of  the  two  poems  is  highly  instructive. 

Lord,  who  shall  sojourn  in  thy  tabernacle?  Psalm  xv 

Who  shall  dwell  in  thy  holy  hill? 

He  that  walketh  uprightly,  and  worketh  righteousness, 

And  speaketh  truth  in  his  heart. 

He  that  slandereth  not  with  his  tongue. 

Nor  doeth  evil  to  his  friend, 

Nor  taketh  up  a  reproach  against  his  neighbour. 

In  whose  eyes  a  reprobate  is  despised; 

But  he  honoureth  them  that  fear  the  Lord. 

He  that  sweareth  to  his  own  hurt,  and  changeth  not. 

He  that  putteth  not  out  his  money  to  usury, 

Nor  taketh  reward  against  the  innocent. 
He  that  doeth  these  things  shall  never  be  moved. 

That  these  are  varying  forms  of  one  poem  is  obvious  ;  in  both  the 
same  character  for  the  worshipper  of  Jehovah  is  conveyed  in  the 
same  form  of  lyric  question  and  answer.  The  differences  between 
them  are  two.  The  fifteenth  psalm  is  much  fuller  in  its  descrip- 
tion, and  yet  this  fulness  is  no  more  than  the  working  out  into 
detail  of  what  the  other  psalm  had  suggested.  Again,  tliere  is  a 
striking  variation   in    the    wording    of  the  opening   verse.     The 


102  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

twenty-fourth  psalm  asks,  "  Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the 
Lord,"  the  fifteenth  psalm  phrases  the  question,  "  Who  shall 
sojoin-n.''''  This  exactly  tallies  with  the  view  here  presented  of 
the  two  poems.  The  one  is  an  anthem  for  a  specific  occasion, 
and  to  the  circumstances  of  that  occasion  —  the  procession  halt- 
ing at  the  foot  of  the  hill  —  the  phrase  is  exactly  relevant,  "  Who 
shall  ascend."  But  when  this  description  of  the  worshipper  of 
Jehovah  is  divorced  from  the  proceedings  of  that  particular  day, 
and  passes  into  general  use,  there  is  no  longer  any  point  in  the 
word  ascend,  and  a  general  term,  sojourn,  is  substituted.  And  it 
is  equally  natural  that  the  brief  suggestive  sketch  should  be  found 
where  the  thought  comes  as  a  single  detail  in  a  long  ceremonial, 
but  that  when  the  fragment  passes  into  use  as  an  independent 
hymn  the  thought  should  expand  and  gather  fulness  and  devo- 
tional beauty. 

The  other  emphatic  point  in  the  march  was  when  the  proces- 
sion drew  up  opposite  the  gates  of  the  city  :  this  gives  us  the 
second  part  of  the  twenty-fourth  psalm.  Two  considerations 
should  be  carefully  remembered  by  the  reader.  .  One  of  these  is 
the  nature  of  the  day's  festival.  It  was  not  a  dedication  of  a 
temple,  but  an  inauguration  of  a  city.  The  tent  in  which  David 
placed  the  Ark  was  clearly  regarded  by  him  as  a  mere  temporary 
convenience ;  the  task  on  which  his  whole  heart  was  bent  was  to 
bring  the  Ark  to  the  city  of  David.  This  Jerusalem  was  an 
ancient  stronghold  of  the  Jebusites ;  to  capture  it  had  been 
David's  greatest  achievement ;  he  wished  to  turn  it  into  the 
metropolis  of  the  military  monarchy  in  which  he,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Jehovah,  was  the  principal  figure  :  there  could  then 
be  no  fitter  form  of  inauguration  than  to  transfer  to  the  newly  cap- 
tured city  the  sacred  Symbol  with  the  fullest  military  honours. 
The  psalm  realises  all  this  by  its  formal  call  upon  the  city  gates  to 
open.  But  a  second  point  must  be  noted  before  the  anthem 
becomes  fully  intelligible.  The  historical  account 
of  the  ceremonial  gives  striking  prominence  to  a 
particular  title  of  the  Divine  Being  —  the  Lord  of  Hosts  :   the 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  103 

narrative  opens  by  speaking  of  "  the  Ark  of  God  which  is  called 
by  the  Name,  even  the  name  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  " ;  it  ends  by 
saying  that  David,  in  dismissing  the  people  to  their  homes,  blessed 
them  "  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  of  hosts."  It  is  clear  that  this 
title  made  a  sort  of  watchword  to  the  day's  proceedings.  With 
the  full  circumstances  before  us  let  us  follow  this  second  section 
of  the  psalm.  The  procession  has  halted  opposite  the  massive 
porch  of  the  time-worn  fortress,  and  in  full  military  form  sum- 
mons it  to  open  its  gates. 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates; 
And  be  ye  lift  up,  ye  ancient  doors : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

Warders  answer  from  within  : 

Who  is  the  King  of  glory? 

By  the  simplest  of  poetic  devices  the  anthem  keeps  back  for  a 
time  the  great  Name,  and  answers  with  other  titles  of  Jehovah, 

The  Lord  strong  and  mighty, 
The  Lord  mighty  in  battle. 

The  watchword  has  not  been  spoken,  and  the  gates  refuse  to  open. 
The  summons  must  be  repeated. 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates; 
Yea,  lift  them  up,  ye  ancient  doors : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

A  second  time  is  heard  the  challenge  from  within : 

Who  is  this  King  of  glory? 

At  last  the  great  Name  is  spoken  : 

The  Lord  of  Hosts, 
He  is  the  King  of  glory ! 

At  this  word  the  gates  roll  back,  the  procession  enters,  and  Jehovah 
has  taken  possession  of  his  city. 


104  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

It  appears  then  that  the  two  sections  of  the  twenty- fourth  psahn 
fit  in  with  two  points  in  the  procession  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem  : 
the  halt  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  the  climax  in  front  of  the 
gates.  The  psalm  finds  its  unity  in  the  external  circumstances  of 
its  first  production. 

Enough  has  now  been  said  on  the  subject  of  this  Higher  Unity, 
the  bond  by  which  different  parts  of  a  composition  are  woven 
together  into  a  single  whole.  We  have  seen  that  to  look  for  such 
unity  is  a  foremost  condition  of  literary  appreciation ;  and  that 
this  applies  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible,  notwithstanding  diffi- 
culties thrown  in  our  way  by  mediaeval  methods  of  printing  or 
reading  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  We  have  seen,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  in  searching  for  the  unity  of  any  particular  poem  we  must  not 
force  interpretation  through  some  preconceived  idea  of  poetic 
connection,  but  must  be  prepared  to  find  the  Higher  Unity  assum- 
ing various  forms.  We  have  surveyed  some  of  these  forms  :  Sim- 
ple Unity,  Unity  of.  Transition,  Unity  of  Antithesis,  Unity  of 
Aggregation,  Unity  of  External  Circumstances.  In  each  case  the 
nature  of  the  unity  must  be  gathered  from  an  examination  of 
the  particular  composition,  and  a  comparison  of  it  with  other 
compositions  of  a  similar  kind. 


CHAPTER    IV 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    LITERARY    FORMS 

My  purpose  in  Book  First  is  to  arrive  at  a  general  classification 
of  such  literary  forms  as  Epic,  Lyric,  Philosophy,  and  others, 
which  can  in  succeeding  books  be  one  by  one  The  Higher  unity 
applied  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible.     Preceding  and  distinctions 

,  ,  .,.,.,  1       of  literary  form 

chapters  have  been  occupied  m  clearnig  the  ground  ; 
starting  from  structural  analysis  they  have  advanced  through  lower 
unities  of  literary  form  to  that  higher  unity  by  which  a  literary 
work  is  grasped  as  a  whole.  It  is  only  when  a  reader  has  accus- 
tomed himself  to  thinking  of  a  poem  (or  prose  composition)  as  aj 
whole  that  he  is  in  a  position  to  take  the  further  step  of  recognis- 
ing the  form  such  a  composition  assumes.  In  the  present  chapteij 
we  are  prepared  to  consider  briefly  the  general  notion  underlying 
such  terms  as  Epic,  Lyric,  and  the  like,  when  these  terms  are 
used  of  universal  literature  ;  and  then  to  note  a  few  of  the  special 
features  that  broadly  distinguish  Hebrew  literature. 

Let  the  reader  firmly  fix  four  ideas  in  his  mind,  as  what  may 

be  called  the  four  Cardinal  Points  of  Literature.   „    ,     ^   ^     , 

The  four  Cardinal 

Two  of  these  are  given  by  the  antithesis  Descrip-   Points  of  Litera.- 

tion  and  Presentation.      When  an  incident  is  de-   ^^^^ 

scribed  to  us,  the  words  are  throughout  the  words  of  the  author. 

When  it  is  presented,  the  author  himself  nowhere 

appears,  but  he   leaves   us  to  hear  the  words  of  ^escription  and 

^^         '  Presentation 

those    personages  who  actually  took   part   in    the 

incident,  perhaps  to  see  their  doings  ;  we  become  spectators,  and 

the   circumstances  are    made    to    present  themselves   before   us. 


106  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Homer  and  Milton  give  us  literature  of  description ;  for  pres- 
entation the  most  complete  illustration  is  Shakespeare,  in  whose 
pages  all  varieties  of  mankind  are  speaking  and  moving,  but  the 
poet  himself  is  never  heard. 

The  other  two  ideas  are  conveyed  by  the  words  Poetry  and 
Prose.      It  is  impossible  to  use  other  terms;  and  yet  about  these 

there  is  an  unfortunate  ambiguity,  owing  to  the  exi- 
Poetry  and  Prose  ■  i  •   u    u  ■  ^i        j      ui 

gences  of  language  which  have  miposed  a  double 

duty  on  the  word  '  prose ' :  it  is  antithetic  to  '  poetry '  and  it  is 
also  antithetic  to  'verse.'  No  doubt  there  is  a  good  deal  in 
common  between  these  two  usages  of  the  word  :  Poetry  is  mostly 
conveyed  in  verse,  and  Prose  literature  in  the  style  called  prose. 
But  the  terms  must  be  used  with  a  cautious  recollection  that 
Poetry  is  sometimes  cast  in  the  form  of  prose  —  notably,  we  shall 
see,  in  the  Bible ;  while  in  the  earlier  stages  of  literary  history 
verse  has  often  been  utilised  for  works  of  science  and  philosophy 
which  would  later  have  been  thrown  into  a  prose  form.  The  con- 
ception we  are  at  pres'fent  seeking  will  be  best  grasped  if  we 
translate  the  Greek  word  '  poetry '  into  its  Latin  equivalent,  '  cre- 
ative literature  ' ;  it  assists  also  to  remember  the  old  English  usage 
by  which  a  poet  was  called  a  '  maker.'  The  idea  underlying  these 
words  is  that  the  poet  makes  something,  creates,  adds  to  the  sum 
of  existences ;  whereas  the  antithetic  literature  of  Prose  has  only 
to  discuss  what  already  exists.  When  Homer  has  sung  and  Eu- 
ripides exhibited  plays  the  world  is  richer  by  an  Achilles  and  an 
Alcestis.  It  makes  no  difference  whether,  as  an  historic  fact,  the 
Greek  warrior  and  the  Queen  of  Pherae  ever  existed,  or  whether 
they  are  pure  figments  of  the  imagination,  or  whether  they  existed 
but  behaved  quite  differently  from  what  the  poem  and  the  play 
suggest :  to  our  poetic  sense  the  Homeric  Achilles  and  the  Euripi- 
dean  .-Vlcestis  are  as  real  as  the  Caesar  of  history.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  literature  of  Prose  moves  only  in  the  region  limited 
by  facts ;  history  and  philosophy  have  to  deal  only  with  what 
actually  has  existence,  accurately  describing  things,  or  bringing  out 
the  relations  between  one  thing  and  another. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  LITERARY  FORMS  107 

These    four  ideas,   Description  and   Presentation,   Poetry,  and 
Prose,  I  have  called  the  four  Cardinal  Points  of  Literature  :  they 
are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  divisions  or  classes  into   p^^jitj^g  i^^er- 
which  literary  works  may  be  divided,  but  as  so   aryform:  the 
many  different  directions  in  which  literary  activity   ^aiiad  Dance 
may  move.     But  to  understand  this  movement  a  fifth  conception 
must  be  added  as  a  starting-point  for  such  activity.     The  starting-  | 
point  of  literature  is  found  in  what  is  technically  called  the  Ballad  ( 
Dance.     The  study  of  Comparative  Literature  reveals  that  wher- 
ever literature  arises  spontaneously  its  earliest  form  is  a  combina- 
tion of  verse,  music,  and  imitative  gesture.     Whether  it  be  a  story, 
or  an  uplifting  of  the  heart  in  worship,  or  a  burst  of  popular  frolic, 
the    expression  of  these  will   be   in  rhythmic  words,  which   are 
chanted  to  a  tune  with  or  without  instrumental  accompaniment, 
and  further  emphasised  by  expressive  gestures  of  the  whole  body 
such  as  have  come  to  be  denominated  '  dancing.'     Hebrew  litera- 
ture was  no  exception.     Of  course,  the   actual  contents  of  our 
Bibles  are  far  removed  from   such  primitive   productions.     But 
some  portions  of  Sacred  Scripture  are  early  enough  not  to  have 
lost  the  triple  form  with  which  poetry  started.    Thus 
we  are  expressly  informed  that  the  Song  of  Moses 
and  Miriam  was  accompanied  with  timbrel   music  and  dances ; 
even  when  the  bringing  of  the  Ark.  to  Jerusalem   ii_  sam.  vi.  5 
called  forth  such  lofty  strains  of  poetry  we  have  a   m-is 
full  description  of  the  orchestra  with  which  that  poetry  was  accom- 
panied, and  we  know  how  David  himself  "  danced  with  all  his 
might  "  in  its  performance. 

If  then  the  reader  keeps  in  his  mind  this  starting-point  of  liter- 
ature in  the  Ballad  Dance,  and  also  the  four  directions  in  which 
its  impulses  are  likely  to  carry  it,  he  will  be  able 
to  lay  down  as  in  a  chart  the  great  forms  which   Forms  for  Liter- 
literature  assumes  as  it  develops.     On  the  side  of  ^^""^^  ^°  general 
Poetry  three  great  types  of  literature  arise,  which  on  examination 
are  found  to  reflect  the  three  elements  —  verse,  music,  dancing  — 
combined  by  primitive  poetry  in  one.     Epic  is  a  branch  thrown 


EPIC 
Description 
(Verse  prepon- 
derates) 


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n. 

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(J 

o 

:/) 

* 

O 

^ 

:3 

■4. 

HISTORY 

Description  (of 

Nature  &  Events) 


LYRIC 

Reflection 

(Music  prepon- 
derates) 


DRAMA 
Presentation 
(Action  prepon- 
derates) 


Ballad  Dance 
Verse 
Music 
Action 
=  Primitive  liter- 
ary form 


r-' 

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^ 

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D 

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4= 

CD 

3- 

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s 

P 

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n 

:3 

RHETORIC 
Presentation 


PHILOSOPHY 
Reflection 


SSOJci 


^-^ 


lo8 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  LITERARY  FORMS  109 

off  on  the  side  of  Description,  for  it  consists  in  the  narration  of  a 

poetic  story  ;  the  name  '  Epic,'  which  hterally  means 

'  speech,'   is   seen  by  comparison  with  the   other 

names  to  imply  that  in  this  branch  verse  is  the  only  one  of  the 

three  original  elements  which  is  essential,  music  and  dancing  being 

for  epic  poetry  mere  accessories  that  soon  disap- 

'        ^  -^  111     Drama 

peared.     Over  against  this  Epic  a  second  branch 

of  creative  literature  is  found  pointing  in  the  direction  of  Presenta- 
tion ;  and  its  name,  Drama,  implies  that  here  the  imitative  gesture 
of  the  ballad  dance  has  predominated  over  everything  else,  for 
'  Drama  '  is  '  acted  poetry.'     The  remaining  constituent  of  primi- 
tive literature,  music,  is  suggested  by  the  name  of 
the  third  great  division  of  poetry  —  Lyric,  and  all 
the  devices  of  musical  art  find  their  analogies  in  the  movement 
of  lyric  poetry.     As  Epic  was  concerned  with  Description,  and\ 
Drama  with  Presentation,  so  Lyric  has  a  special  function  which  ] 
at  the  same  time  mediates  between  the  other  two.     It  may  be 
described  by  the  term  Reflection  or  Meditation ;  by  this  medi- 
tative  function   lyric  poetry  can  —  as  its  position  on  our  chart 
would  suggest  —  pass  at  any  moment  into  epic  or  dramatic  with- 
out losing  its  own  distinctive  character.     To  illustrate  :  let  us  take 
up  (say)  the  ninth  psalm  at  the  eleventh  verse. 

Sing  praises  to  the  Lord,  which  dwelleth  in  Zion : 

Declare  among  the  people  his  doings. 
For  he  that  maketh  inquisition  for  blood  remembereth  them : 

He  forgetteth  not  the  cry  of  the  poor. 

We  have  struck  this  lyric  at  a  point  where  the  poet  is  reflecting  ;  but 
in  the  next  verse  the  meditation  has  become  dramatic,  for  we  are 
allowed  to  hear  the  very  cries  of  the  poor  who  have  been  spoken  of 

"  Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  Lord; 
Behold  my  affliction  which  I  suffer  of  them  that  hate  me, 
Thou  that  liftest  me  up  from  the  gates  of  death; 
That  I  may  shew  forth  all  thy  praise : 
In  the  gates  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
I  will  rejoice  in  thy  salvation." 


110  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

As  the  lyric  form  has  thus  changed  quite  naturally  into  a  momen- 
tary drama,  so  in  the  verse  that  follows  it  is  found  to  have  passed 
into  epic  description. 

The  nations  are  sunk  down  in  the  pit  that  they  made : 
In  the  net  which  they  hid  is  their  own  foot  taken. 

Biblical  lyrics  illustrate  more  fully  than  any  others  this  essentially 
central  character  of  lyric  poetry  and  its  power  of  absorbing  the 
other  forms. 

Analogous  to  the  three  great  types  of  Poetry  we  have  three 
main  divisions  of  literature  on  its  side  of  Prose.     Epic  has  its 
counterpart  in  History.     The  word  history  has  for 
its  range  the  whole  field  of  positive  description  : 
'  Natural  History '  is  the  description  of  external  nature,  and  '  His- 
tory '  without  any  qualifying  adjective  is  the  description  of  events. 
On  the  other  side  the  prose  analogue  of  Drama  is 
Rhetoric  ;   for  the  orator  differs  from  others  w^ho 
use  prose  in  the  prominence  he  gives  to  presentation.     To  the 
famous  orator  Demosthenes  is  attributed  the  saying  that  the  first 
element  of  oratory  is  action,  and  the  second  element  action,  and 
the  third  action  :  the  meaning  of  this  is  that  an  orator  must  above 
all  things  be  an  acfor;  he  must  be  able  to  identify  himself  with  his 
cause  as  an  actor  presents  a  part.     Lastly,  as  Lyric  was  reflective 
poetry,  the  corresponding  form  of  prose  literature  is 
^  Philosophy,  which  is  no  more  than  organised  reflec- 

tion. And  as  Lyric  was  found  to  occupy  a  central  position  on  the 
side  of  poetry,  so  that  it  could  dip  at  intervals  into  Epic  and  Drama, 
an  analogous  power  attaches  to  Philosophy,  which  can  extend  in 
the  direction  of  Description  when  it  takes  the  form  of  scientific 
observation,  and  on  the  other  side  can  advance  almost  to  the 
bounds  of  Rhetoric  in  the  form  of  exposition. 

We  have  thus,  starting  from  first  principles,  arrived  at  a  concep- 
tion of  the  six  main  divisions  of  literary  form.  But  these  six  forms 
must  be  understood  as  merely  general  notions,  drawn  from  a  com- 
parative survey  of  literature  a^  a  whole.     Just  as  the  'elements' 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  111 

into  which  the  chemist  analyses  matter  are  seldom  found  in  nature 
separate  and  distinct,  but  almost  always  in  com-    Literary  works 
bination,  so  in  the  actual  literatures  of  the  world  it   seldom  confined 
will  be  an  exceptional  case  if  any  particular  work  is   *°  ^  z^i^g\t  form 
found  to  exemplify  one  of  the  six  forms  we  have  been  discussing, 
without  any  admixture  of  the  rest. 

We  are  to  review  the  various  forms  as  they  appear  in  the  Bible. 
But  first  I  will  draw  attention  tojhree  points  which,   distinguishing 
in  the  most  general  survey,  distinguish  Biblical  lit-   features  of  He- 
erature  from  the  other  great  literatures  of  the  world,   ^''^'^  Literature 
and  affect  its  relation  to  the  elements  of  literary  form  just  surveyed. 

The  first  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Hebrew  literature  is  that 

it  has  not  developed  a  separate  and  distinct  Drama ;  although,  as 

if  to  compensate  for  this,  the  dramatic  impulse  is 

^  I .  No  separate      \ 

found  in  Hebrew  to  invade  other  regions  of  htera-  Drama  but  dra- 

ture,  including   such  departments    as   might  have   "^^i''  inOuence 

,  .  .  .         ^,  _     ,      on  other  forms 

seemed  most  impervious  to  it.  1  he  current  find- 
ing no  channel  has  spread  and  diffused  itself.  The  reader  of  the 
Bible  knows  that  he  will  find  in  it  no  acted  play  like  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare.  But  on  the  other  hand  he  will  find  lyric  poems 
specially  dramatic  in  tone,  and  in  Solomon's  Song  a  lyric  idyl  that 
impresses  some  of  its  readers  as  a  complete  drama.  He  will  find, 
again,  philosophy  taking  a  dramatic  shape.  In  the  Book  of  Job 
the  dramatic  form  reaches  an  intensity  not  exceeded  in  any  liter- 
ature ;  yet  even  here  there  is  no  independent  drama,  but  the 
dramatised  discussion  is  made  to  rest  on  a  basis  of  epic  story. 
What  is  still  more  surprising,  the  discourses  of  prophecy  are  found 
to  be  leavened  by  the  dramatic  spirit,  and  that  most  concentrated 
form  of  Hebrew  prophecy,  which  will  in  this  work  be  called  the 
Rhapsody,  is  pre-eminent  in  the  closeness  with  which  it  approaches 
to  Drama.  If  such  things  could  be  made  the  subject  of  measure- 
ment, it  would  be  safe  to  predict  that  the  7nass  of  dramatic  mate- 
rial in  Biblical  literature  would  be  not  less  than  that  found  in  other 
literatures  where  Drama  is  a  distinct  form, 


112  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

A    second    consideration    must   be    mentioned    as   separating 

Hebrew  from  other  literatures.     When  a  reader  turns  over  the 

pages  of  the  Bible,  the  department  which  will  im- 
2.  Prophecy  a  ,.  ,•,„■.• 

special  depart-       press  him  most  by  Its  bulk  and  importance  is  one 

ment  of  Litera-  not  included  in  the  above  classification,  because  it 
is  no  element  of  universal  literature.  This  is  the 
department  of  Prophecy.  The  distinction  of  Prophecy_isjiot  one 
of  form  but  of  spirit  ^  Biblical  Prophecy,  in  a  sense  that  belongs 
to  no  other  class  of  literature,  presents  itself  as  an  actual  Divine 
message.  So  far  as  form  is  concerned  Prophecy  is  not  distinctive 
but  comprehensive  :  all  types  of  literature  are  attracted  towards 
it,  and,  as  will  be  seen  at  the  proper  place,  the  various  literary 
forms  are  fused  together  into  a  new  form  in  the  Prophetic  Rhap- 
sody. 

The  third  distinguishing  feature  of  Hebrew  literature  needs 
fuller  explanation.     It  has  to  do  with  the  external  form  of  verse 

Overiappine  ^'^^  prose.  We  saw  that  Hebrew  rests  its  verse 
of  Verse  and  system,  not  upon  metre  or  rhyme,  but  upon  paral- 

^■^"^^  lelism  of  clauses.      But,  as   a  matter  of  universal 

literature,  parallelism  is  one  of  the  devices  of  prose  :  the  rhetoric 
of  all  nations  includes  it.  If  then  a  particular  language  bases  its 
verse  upon  something  which  is  also  the  property  of  prose,  it  is  an 
inevitable  consequence  that  in  that  language  prose  and  verse  will 
overlap  :  and  such  is  the  case  with  Biblical  literature.  I  do  not 
of  course  mean  that  the  verse  literature  of  the  Bible  taken  as  a 
whole  could  be  confused  with  the  Biblical  literature  of  prose. 
What  could  be  further  from  prose  than  the  Book  of  Psalms?  and 
what  could  be  further  from  verse  than  the  Books  of  Chronicles? 
But  while  in  their  extremes  they  are  totally  different,  yet  there  is  a 
middle  region  of  Biblical  style  in  which  verse  and  prose  meet :  a 
high  parallelism  in  which  transition  can  be  rapidly  made  from  the 
one  to  the  other,  or  even  the  effects  of  the  two  can  seem  to  be 
combined.  It  is  this  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose  which  con- 
stitutes the  third  distinctive  feature  of  Hebrew  literature. 

I   am   the  more  particular  upon  this  point,  because  it  is  one 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  113 

which  I  think  has  not  received  sufificient  attention.  The  combina- 
tion of  verse  and  prose  to  which  I  am  alluding  is  not  the  fact  that, 
in  such  a  book  as  Jeremiah,  some  compositions  are  found  to  be 
verse  and  some  prose.  Nor  am  I  referring  merely  to  the  literary- 
effect  of  a  transition  in  the  same  composition  from  a  passage  of 
prose  to  a  passage  of  verse  ;  such  transitions  belong  to  many 
literatures,  and  are  markedly  characteristic  of  Shakespeare  in  his 
later  plays.  The  union  of  verse  and  prose  can  in  Biblical  litera- 
ture be  more  intimate  still :  what  in  another  language  we  should 
have  to  call  a  system  of  verse  —  for  example,  the  analysis  of  a 
single  stanza  —  will  in  the  Hebrew  be  found  to  combine  prose 
with  verse  into  a  common  system. 

A  clear  grasp  of  this  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose  is  neces- 
sary for  the  appreciation  of  Hebrew  literature.     To  gain  it  may 

require  some  effort  of  mind  on  the  part  of  those   ^^.         ,,.,. 
^  ....  T*i'S  an  addition 

who  have  formed  their  ideas  in  literatures  of  a  dif-  to  the  resources 
ferent  kind.  The  English  reader,  for  example,  is  °*^*yi^ 
accustomed  to  a  verse  founded  on  metrical  considerations  or 
rhyme  —  things  foreign  to  prose  ;  when  he  hears  of  verse  ap- 
proaching prose  the  phrase  is  likely  to  suggest  to  him  weakness 
and  inefficiency.  Any  such  suggestion  becomes  inapplicable  in 
the  case  of  a  language  wliere  parallelism  makes  a  common  ground 
between  the  highest  poetry  and  the  highest  rhetoric.  It  is  clear, 
on  the  contrary,  that  the  literary  resources  of  Hebrew  are  increased 
by  the  feature  we  are  discussing.  Hebrew  has  the  power  pos- 
sessed by  other  languages  of  producing  literary  effect  with  changes 
from  the  one  form  of  expression  to  the  other.  But  it  has  also  a 
power  all  its  own  of  maintaining  (so  to  speak)  a  watershed  of 
high  parallelism,  from  which  it  can  dip  towards  verse  or  prose 
with  the  utmost  subtlety,  or  can  combine  in  one  the  delight  in 
freedom,  which  is  the  spirit  of  prose,  with  a  sense  of  rhythm, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  verse. 

I  am  about  to  bring  forward  illustrations,  but  I  must  preface 
them  with  one  general  remark.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  extracts 
cited  that  certain  passages  are  printed  as  prose  which  are  usually 


114  UTERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

represented  to  be  lines  of  verse ;  and  the  question  may  arise, 
what  is  the  criterion  for  deciding  such  points.     I  would  answer 

that  the  matter  cannot  be  determined  simply  by 
c^^^^d°s  *^^     examining  the  passages  themselves  and  the  relation 

of  successive  clauses,  seeing  that  parallelism  is  com- 
mon ground  between  verse  and  rhetoric  prose.  Where  is  the 
parallelism  of  clauses  carried  further  than  in  the  speeches  of 
Moses  as  they  appear  in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  especially  at 
such  a  point  of  the  book  as  the  eighth  chapter?  Yet  no  one 
would  break  up  such  speeches  into  lines  of  verse,  because  the 
general  drift  and  spirit  of  the  whole  makes  it  clear  that  they  con- 
stitute not  poetr}'  but  oratory.  So  with  regard  to  the  citations 
from  prophecy  that  are  to  be  given,  it  is  necessar)-,  besides  ex- 
amining the  indi\'idual  clauses,  to  study  the  extract  as  a  whole, 
and  the  way  its  different  parts  hang  together ;  when  this  is  done, 
it  will  often  appear  that  a  passage,  which  in  itself  would  make 
good  verse,  will  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  be  better  represented 
to  the  eye  and  ear  as  prose.  To  use  the  terms  I  distinguished 
when  speaking  on  the  general  subject  of  structure,  the  analysis  of 
prophetic  style  must  be  dominated  by  the  higher  and  not  the 
lower  parallelism. 

My  first   illustration   is   from   the   prophecy   of 

Amos,  a  book  which  will  impress  the  most  casual 
reader  with  the  prominence  in  it  of  structural  beauty. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Damasctis, 
Yea,  for  four, 

I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because   they   have   threshed   Gilead   with   threshing    instruments    of 
iron: 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  into  the  house  of  Hazael, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Ben-hadad. 
And  I  will  break  the  bar  of  Damascus,  and  cut  off  the  inhabitant  from 
the  valley  of  Aven,  and  him  that  holdeth  the  sceptre  from  the  house 
of  Eden :  and  the  people  of  S}Tia  shall  go  into  capti\'ity  unto  Kir,  saith 
the  Lord. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  115 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Gaza, 
Yea,  for  four, 

I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  they  carried  away  captive  the  whole  people,  to  deliver  them 
up  to  Edom : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  on  the  wall  of  Gaza, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof: 
and  I  will  cut  off  the  inhabitant  from  Ashdod,  and  him  that  holdeth 
the  sceptre  from  Ashkelon;    and  I  will  turn  mine  hand  against  Ekron, 
and  the  remnant  of  the  Philistines  shall  perish,  saith  the  Lord  God. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Tyre, 
Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because   they  delivered  up  the  whole   people  to  Edom,  and  remem- 
bered not  the  brotherly  covenant : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  on  the  wall  of  Tyre, 
And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Edom, 
Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  he  did  pursue  his  brother  with  the  sword,  and  did  cast  off  all 
pity,  and  his  anger  did  tear  perpetually,  and  he  kept  his  wrath  for 
ever: 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Teman, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Bozrah. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  the  children  of  Ammon, 
Yea,  for  four, 

I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  they  have  ripped  up  the  women  with  child  of  Gilead,  that  they 
might  enlarge  their  border  : 

But  I  will  kindle  a  fire  in  the  wall  of  Rabbah, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palacgs  thereof, 
with  shouting  in  the  day  of  battle,  with  a  tempest  in  the  day  of  the 
whirlwind:    and   their  king  shall  go  away  into  captivity,  he  and  his 
princes  together,  saith  the  Lord. 


116  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Moab, 
Yea,  for  four, 

I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  he  burned  the  bones  of  the  king  of  Etlom  into  lime : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Moab, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Kerioth ; 
and  Moab  shall  die  with  tumult,  with  shouting,  and  with  the  sound  of 
the  trumpet;   and  I  will  cut  off  the  judge  from  the  midst  thereof,  and 
will  slay  all  the  princes  thereof  with  him,  saith  the  Lord. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Judah, 
Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  they  have  rejected  the  law  of  the  Lord,  and  have  not  kept 
his  statutes,  and  their  lies  have  caused  them  to  err,  after  the  which 
their  fathers  did  walk : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Judah, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Jerusalem. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Israel, 
Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
because  they  have  sold  the  righteous  for  silver,  and  the  needy  for  a 
pair  of  shoes :  that  pant  after  the  dust  of  the  earth  on  the  head  of  the 
poor,  and  turn  aside  the  way  of  the  meek :  and  a  man  and  his  father 
will  go  unto  the  same  maid,  to  profane  my  holy  name :  and  they  lay 
themselves  down  beside  every  altar  upon  clothes  taken  in  pledge,  and 
in  the  house  of  their  God  they  drink  the  wine  of  such  as  have  been 
fined.  Yet  destroyed  I  the  Amorite  before  them,  whose  height  was 
like  the  height  of  the  cedars,  and  he  was  strong  as  the  oaks;  yet  I 
destroyed  his  fruit  from  above,  and  his  roots  from  beneath.  Also 
I  brought  you  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  led  you  forty  years  in 
the  wilderness,  to  possess  the  land  of  the  Amorite.  And  I  raised  up 
of  your  sons  for  prophets,  and  of  your  young  men  for  Nazirites.  Is  it 
not  even  thus,  O  ye  children  of  Israel?  saith  the  Lord.  But  ye  gave 
the  Nazirites  wine  to  drink;  and  commanded  the  prophets,  saying, 
Prophesy  not. 

Behold  I  will  press  you  in  your  place, 
As  a  cart  presseth  that  is  full  uf  sheaves. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  117 

And  flight  shall  perish  from  the  swift, 

And  the  strong  shall  not  strengthen  his  force, 

Neither  shall  the  mighty  deliver  himself: 

Neither  shall  he  stand  that  handleth  the  bow; 

And  he  that  is  swift  of  foot  shall  not  deliver  himself: 

Neither  shall  he  that  rideth  the  horse  deliver  himself: 

And  he  that  is  courageous  among  the  mighty 

Shall  flee  away  naked  in  that  day, 

Saith  the  Lord, 

If  we  examine  this  portion  of  Amos  in  the  spirit  of  the  lower 
parallehsm,  we  must  admit  that  the  passages  here  printed  as  prose 
could  be  broken  up  into  verses,  most  of  them  without  straining. 
But  the  higher  parallelism  constructs  the  whole  passage  on  an 
extremely  simple  plan  :  this  prophecy  against  eight  peoples  is 
made  up  of  common  formulas  expressing  ideal  transgressions  and 
ideal  dooms,  together  with  particular  descriptions  of  actual  sins 
and  actual  sufferings.  It  is  surely  in  keeping  with  such  a  general 
plan  that  the  formulae  and  ideal  portions  should  be  found  to  be  in 
verse,  and  the  particular  descriptions  in  prose.  Moreover,  when 
we  examine  the  denunciation  of  Israel,  the  final  cHmax  up  to  which 
all  the  rest  leads,  we  find  that  it  is  just  here  that  the  description  is 
most  difficult  to  compel  into  the  form  of  verse  :  if  this  goes  best 
as  prose  then  the  parts  correlated  with  it  should  be  prose  also. 
P'inally,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  for  a  moment  simply  as  a  work  of 
art,  we  must  be  struck  with  the  superb  elasticity  of  style  which 
Hebrew  obtains  from  a  power  of  combining  verse  and  prose  in 
the  same  way  that  the  oratorio  combines  recitative  with  timed 
music.  The  speaker  can  at  any  moment  suspend  rhythm  in  order 
to  penetrate  with  the  unfettered  simplicity  of  prose  into  every 
detail  of  realism,  sure  of  being  able  to  recover  when  he  pleases 
the  rhythmic  march,  and  the  strong  tone  of  idealisation. 

My  second  illustration  goes  further  than  the  first  in  the  direc- 
tion of  artistic  elaborateness,  and  is  proportionately 

i-rr  r  ■      •  t         •  l  Joelii.   I-II 

more   open   to    dmerence    of  opmion.      It  is  the 

flimous  passage  in  which  Joel  conveys  the  approach  of  the  mystic 

destruction. 


118  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE    ' 

Blow  ye  the  trumpet  in  Zion, 

And  sound  an  alarm  in  my  holy  mountain; 

Let  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  tremble : 
for  the  Day  of  the  Lord  cometh,  for  it  is  nigh  at  hand;  a  day  of  dark- 
ness and  gloominess,  a  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness,  as  the  dawn 
spread  upon  the  mountains;  a  great  people  and  a  strong,  there  hath 
not  been  ever  the  like,  neither  shall  be  any  more  after  them,  even  to 
the  years  of  many  generations  I 

A  fire  devoureth  before  them; 

And  behind  them  a  flame  burneth : 

The  land  is  as  the  garden  of  Eden  before  them, 

And  behind  them  a  desolate  wilderness  I 
Yea,  and  none  hath  escaped  them.  The  appearance  of  them  is  as  the 
appearance  of  horses;  and  as  horsemen,  so  do  they  run.  Like  the 
noise  of  chariots  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  do  they  leap,  like 
the  noise  of  a  flame  of  fire  that  devoureth  the  stubble,  as  a  strong 
people  set  in  battle  array. 

At  their  presence  the  peoples  are  in  anguish : 

All  faces  are  waxed  pale  : 

They  run  like  mighty  men; 

They  climb  the  wall  like  men  of  war; 

And  they  march  every  one  on  his  ways. 
And  they  break  not  their  ranks:   neither  doth  one  thrust  another;    they 
march  every  one  in  his  path  :  and  they  burst  through  the  weapons,  and 
break  not  off  their  course. 

They  leap  upon  the  city; 

They  run  upon  the  wall; 

They  climb  up  into  the  houses; 

They  enter  in  at  the  windows  like  a  thief. 

The  earth  quaketh  before  them ; 

The  heavens  tremble : 

The  sun  and  the  moon  are  darkened. 

And  the  stars  withdraw  their  shining: 
and  the  Lord  uttereth  his  voice  before  his  army;   for  his  camp  is  very 
great;    for  he  is  strong  that  executeth  his  word:    for  the  Day  of  the 
Lord  is  great  and  very  terrible;   and  who  can  abide  it? 

At  first  sight  the  reader  might  be  surprised  to  see  treated  as 
prose  language  so  full  of  fire  and  rhythm.  Rut  we  have  seen  that 
this  by  itself  is  an  unsafe  criterion  :  the  line  is  a  very  fine  one  that 
separates  between  the  rhythm  of  universal  rhetoric  and  the  rliythm 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  119 

of  Hebrew  verse.  The  only  safe  guide  is  the  structure  of  the  whole 
passage.  One  point  in  the  above  arrangement  is  obvious  —  it 
yields  the  favourite  Hebrew  effect  of  augmenting :  when  the  pass- 
ages of  verse  are  examined  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  consists  of 
three  lines,  the  second  of  four,  the  third  of  five,  the  climax  of  a 
much  larger  number.  But  the  more  important  question  is,  whether 
the  breaks  suggested  between  prose  and  verse  coincide  with  any 
change  in  the  spirit  of  the  whole.  The  passage  is  dominated  by 
one  idea  —  the  sense  of  mysterious  approach.  The  prophecy  of 
Joel,  starting  from  a  plague  of  locusts,  idealises  this  into  destruc- 
tion as  a  general  notion,  and  so  finely  is  this  idealisation  executed 
that  associations  of  locusts  and  of  destruction  in  general  mingle 
together  until  they  leave  on  our  minds  nothing  but  a  sense  of 
awful  mystery.  Keeping  then  this  idea  of  mystic  approach  before 
us,  let  us  examine  the  sections  of  the  whole  passage.  The  opening 
verses  are  simply  an  alarm  :  a  trumpet  crash  and  quivering  nerves. 
Then  prose  puts  the  meaning  of  the  alarm,  as  it  might  be  inter- 
preted by  rumour  :  it  must  be  the  Day  of  Jehovah  breaking,  with 
blackness  for  its  light  of  dawn  :  a  '  people  '  coming,  the  like  of 
which  has  never  been  seen.  With  the  return  to  verse  we  have 
advanced  from  hearing  to  seeing :  but  the  first  glance  pictures  the 
army  of  destruction  only  by  its  effects  —  the  beauty  before  it,  the 
destruction  and  burning  where  it  has  passed.  A  second  glance 
analyses  in  prose  the  destroying  force  :  like  the  words  of  one 
trying  to  make  out  something  in  the  distance,  we  hear  minglings 
of  the  appearance  of  horses  with  the  sounds  of  chariots  and  flames. 
Another  stage  of  advance  is  jnade  by  a  simple  contrast  in  verse  — 
the  pale  terror  of  the  helpless  victims,  and  the  energy  of  the 
destroying  march.  But  no  sooner  is  the  word  '  march  '  introduced 
than  prose  proceeds  to  analyse  the  march,  with  the  riddling  sug- 
gestions of  locusts  underlying  the  descriptions  of  unbroken  ranks, 
and  the  pouring  through  opposing  weapons.  At  last  the  goal  of 
the  city  is  reached,  and  in  a  string  of  abrupt  verses  we  have  the 
irresistible  invasion  from  every  side  until  the  whole  earth  is 
darkened  and  rocking  with  a  universal  destruction.     Then  a  yet 


120  LITERARY   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

higher  cUmax  is  made  when  prose  brings  out  the  power  that  has 
been  behind  the  whole  judgment  —  it  is  indeed  Jehovah  whose 
word  has  been  thus  strongly  executed  :  and  who  shall  abide  his 
terrible  day  !  The  stnictural  law  of  the  whole  stands  out  clear : 
continually  augmenting  stanzas  of  verse  paint  the  objective  scene, 
and  prose  interposes  between  them  to  analyse  and  interpret 
each. 

But  to  fully  appreciate  this  feature  of  Biblical  style  the  reader 
ought  to  watch  it  as  it  appears  upon  a  more  extended  scale.  I 
shall  therefore  conclude  by  citing  the  Book  of 
ep  ani  ^pj^if^i^ji  \^  {^\\  The  Structural  plan  of  this 
prophecy  is  equally  simple  and  impressive.  It  is  prose  broken 
by  snatches  of  verse.  Upon  examination,  the  prose  is  found  to 
be  a  continuous  discourse  conveying  the  denunciatory  message  of 
Deity ;  the  verse  passages  are  interruptions  of  lyric  comment  at 
emphatic  points. 

THE   WORD    OF  THE   LORD 

which  came  unto 

ZEPHANIAH 

the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of  Gedaliah, 

the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hezekiah, 

in  the  days  of  Josiah  the  son  of  Amon, 

king  of  Judah. 

I  will  utterly  consume  all  things  from  off  the  face  of  the  ground,  saith 
the  Lord.  I  will  consume  man  ancl  beast;  I  will  consume  the  fowls 
of  the  heaven,  and  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and  the  stumbling-blocks  with 
the  wicked;  and  I  will  cut  off  man  from  off  the  face  of  the  ground, 
saith  the  Lord.  And  I  will  stretch  out  mine  hand  upon  Judah,  and 
upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem;  and  I  will  cut  off  the  remnant 
of  IJaal  from  this  place,  and  the  name  of  the  Chemarim  with  the 
priests;  and  them  that  worship  the  host  of  heaven  upon  the  house- 
tops; and  them  that  worship,  which  swear  to  the  Lord  and  swear  by 
Malcam;  and  them  that  are  turned  back  from  following  the  Lord; 
and  those  that  have  not  sought  the  Lord,  nor  inquired  after  him. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  121 

Hold  thy  peace  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord  GoD  : 

For  the  Day  of  the  Lord  is  at  hand : 
For  the  Lord  hath  prepared  a  sacritice, 

He  hath  sanctified  his  guests ! 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  day  of  the  Lord's  sacrifice,  that  I  will 
punish  the  princes,  and  the  king's  sons,  and  all  such  as  are  clothed 
with  foreign  apparel.  And  in  that  day  I  will  punish  all  those  that  leap 
over  the  threshold,  which  fill  their  master's  house  with  violence  and 
deceit.  And  in  that  day,  saith  the  Lord,  there  shall  be  the  noise  of 
a  cry  from  the  fish  gate,  and  an  howling  from  the  second  quarter,  and 
a  great  crashing  from  the  hills. 

Howl,  ye  inhabitants  of  Maktesh, 
For  all  the  people  of  Canaan  are  undone  : 
All  they  that  were  laden  with  silver  are  cut  off. 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  at  that  time,  that  I  will  search  Jerusalem  with 
candles;  and  I  will  punish  the  men  that  are  settled  on  their  lees,  that 
say  in  their  heart.  The  Lord  will  not  do  good,  neither  will  he  do  evil. 
And  their  wealth  shall  become  a  spoil,  and  their  houses  a  desolation; 
yea,  they  shall  build  houses,  but  shall  not  inhabit  them;  and  they  shall 
plant  vineyards,  but  shall  not  drink  the  wine  thereof. 

The  great  Day  of  the  Lord  is  near : 

It  is  near  and  hasteth  greatly  ! 
Even  the  voice  of  the  Day  of  the  Lord; 

The  mighty  man  crieth  there  bitterly ! 

That  Day  is  a  day  of  wrath, 

A  day  of  trouble  and  distress, 

A  day  of  wasteness  and  desolation, 

A  day  of  darkness  and  gloominess, 

A  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness, 

A  day  of  the  trumpet  and  alarm 

Against  the  fenced  cities. 

And  against  the  high  battlements ! 

And  I  will  bring  distress  upon  men,  that  they  shall  walk  like  blind 
men,  because  they  have  sinned  against  the  Lord  :  and  their  blood 
shall  be  poured  out  as  dust,  and  their  flesh  as  dung.  Neither  their 
silver  nor  their  gold  shall  be  able  to  deliver  them  in  the  day  of  the 
Lord's  wrath;   but  the  whole  land  shall  be  devoured  by  the  fire  of  his 


122  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION   OF  SCRIPTURE 

jealousy :  for  he  shall  make  an  end,  jea,  a  terrible  end,  of  all  them 
that  dwell  in  the  land. 

Gather  vourselves  tt^ether,  yea,  gather  together, 
O  nation  that  hath  no  shame; 

Before  the  decree  bring  forth. 

Before  the  day  pass  as  the  cha^ 

Before  the  Serce  anger  of  the  LORD  come  npon  yoo. 
Before  the  Day  of  the  Lord's  Anger  come  upon  you. 

Seek  ye  the  Lord,  all  ye  meek  of  the  earth. 
Which  hare  wrought  his  judgement; 

Seek  righteousness. 

Seek  meekness : 

It  may  be  ye  shall  be  hid 
In  the  Day  of  the  Lord's  Anger. 

For  Gaza  shall  be  forsaken,  and  Ashkelon  a  desolation :  they  shall  drive 
oat  Ashdod  at  the  noonday,  and  Ekron  shall  be  rooted  up. 

Woe  unto  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  coast. 
The  nation  of  the  Cherethites! 

The  word  of  the  Lord  is  against  you,  O  Canaan,  the  land  of  the 
Philistines;  I  wiQ  destroy  thee  that  there  shall  be  no  inhabitant.  And 
the  sea  coast  shall  be  pastures,  with  cottages  for  shepherds  and  folds 
for  flocks.  And  the  coast  shall  be  for  the  remnant  of  the  house  of 
Judah;  they  shall  feed  their  flocks  thereupon :  in  the  houses  of  Ashke* 
Ion  shall  they  he  down  in  the  evening;  for  the  Lord  their  God  shall 
visit  them,  and  bring  again  their  captivity.  I  have  heard  the  reproach 
of  Moab,  and  the  reviling  of  the  children  of  Ammon,  wherewith  they 
have  reproached  my  people,  and  magnified  themselves  against  their 
border.  Therefore  as  I  live,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel, 
Sorely  Moab  shall  be  as  Sodom,  and  the  children  of  Ammon  as  Gomor- 
rah, a  posse^on  of  nettles,  and  saltpits,  and  a  perpetual  desolation : 
the  residue  of  my  people  shall  spoil  them,  and  the  remnant  of  my 
nation  shall  inherit  them.  This  shall  they  have  for  their  pride,  because 
they  have  reproached  and  magnified  themselves  against  the  people  of 
the  Lord  of  hosts.  The  Lord  win  be  terrible  unto  them :  for  he  will 
famish  aU  the  gods  of  the  earth ;  and  men  shall  worship  him,  every  one 
from  his  place,  even  all  the  isles  of  the  nations.  Ye  Ethiopians  also, 
ye  shall  be  slain  by  my  sword.  .-Vnd  he  will  stretch  out  his  hand 
against   the    north,  and   destroy   .\ssma;    and  will  make  Nineveh  a 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  123 

desolation,  and  dry  like  the  wilderness.  And  herds  shall  lie  down  in 
the  midst  of  her,  all  the  beasts  of  the  nations :  both  the  pelican  and 
the  porcupine  shall  lodge  in  the  chapiters  thereof:  their  voice  shall 
sing  in  the  windows;  desolation  shall  be  in  the  thresholds:  for  he  hath 
laid  bare  the  cedar  work. 

This  is  the  joyous  city, 

That  dwelt  carelessly, 

That  said  in  her  heart,  I  am, 

And  there  is  none  else  beside  me: 
How  is  she  become  a  desolation, 
A  place  for  beasts  to  lie  down  in  ! 
Every  one  that  passeth  by  her  shall  hiss, 
And  wag  his  hand. 

Woe  to  her  that  is  rebellious  and  polluted, 
To  the  oppressing  city  ! 

She  obeyed  not  the  voice; 

She  received  not  correction; 

She  trusted  not  in  the  Lord; 

She  drew  not  near  to  her  God. 

Her  princes  in  the  midst  of  her  are  roaring  lions; 

Her  judges  are  evening  wolves; 

They  leave  nothing  till  the  morrow. 

Her  prophets  are  light  and  treacherous  persons : 

Her  priests  have  profaned  the  sanctuary, 

They  have  done  violence  to  the  law. 
The  Lord  in  the  midst  of  her  is  righteous; 
He  will  not  do  iniquity; 

Every  morning  doth  he  bring  his  judgement  to  light, 
,    He  faileth  not; 
But  the  unjust  knoweth  no  shame. 

I  have  cut  off  nations,  their  battlements  are  desolate;  I  have  made 
their  streets  waste,  that  none  passeth  by;  their  cities  are  destroyed, 
so  that  there  is  no  man,  that  there  is  none  inhabitant.  I  said.  Surely 
thou  wilt  fear  me,  thou  wilt  receive  correction;  so  her  dwelling  should 
not  be  cut  off,  according  to  all  that  I  have  appointed  concerning  her : 
but  they  rose  early  and  corrupted  all  their  doings.  Therefore  wait  ye 
for  me,  saith  the  Lord,  until  the  day  that  1  rise  up  to  the  prey :  for 
my  determination  is  to  gather  the  nations,  that  I  may  assemble  the 


124  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

kingdoms,  to  pour  upon  them  mine  indignation,  even  all  my  fierce 
anger;  for  all  the  earth  shall  be  devoured  with  the  fire  of  my  jealousy. 

For  then  ^vill  I  turn  to  the  peoples  a  pure  language,  that  they  may 
all  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord,  to  serve  him  with  one  consent. 
From  beyond  the  rivers  of  Ethiopia  my  suppliants,  even  the  daughter 
of  my  dispersed,  shall  bring  mine  offering.  In  that  day  shalt  thou  not 
be  ashamed  for  all  thy  doings,  wherein  thou  hast  transgressed  against 
me :  for  then  I  will  take  away  out  of  the  midst  of  thee  thy  proudly 
exulting  ones,  and  thou  shalt  no  more  be  haughty  in  my  holy  mountain. 
But  I  will  leave  in  the  midst  of  thee  an  afflicted  and  poor  people,  and 
they  shall  trust  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  The  remnant  of  Israel  shall 
not  do  iniquity,  nor  speak  lies;  neither  shall  a  deceitful  tongue  be 
found  in  their  mouth :  for  they  shall  feed  and  lie  down,  and  none  shall 
make  them  afraid. 

Sing,  O  daughter  of  Zion;   shout,  O  Israel; 
Be  glad  and  rejoice  with  all  the  heart, 
O  daughter  of  Jerusalem. 

The  Lord  hath  taken  away  thy  judgements, 
He  hath  cast  out  thine  enemy : 

The  king  of  Israel, 

Even  the  Lord,  is  in  the  midst  of  thee : 
Thou  shalt  not  fear  evil  any  more. 

In  that  day  it  shall  be  said  to  Jerusalem,  Fear  thou  not : 
O  Zion,  let  not  thine  hands  be  slack. 

The  Lord  thy  God  is  in  the  midst  of  thee, 

A  mighty  one  who  will  save : 
He  will  rejoice  over  thee  with  joy, 
He  will  rest  in  his  love,  « 

He  will  joy  over  thee  with  singing. 

I  will  gather  them  that  sorrow  for  the  solemn  assembly,  who  were  of 
thee :  to  whom  the  burden  upon  her  was  a  reproach.  Behold,  at  that 
time  I  will  deal  with  all  them  that  afflict  thee :  and  I  will  save  her  that 
halteth,  and  gather  her  that  was  driven  away;  and  I  will  make  them 
a  praise  and  a  name,  whose  shame  hath  been  in  all  the  earth.  At  that 
time  will  I  bring  you  in,  and  at  that  time  will  I  gather  you :  for  I  will 
make  you  a  name  and  a  praise  among  all  the  peoples  of  the  earth, 
when  I  bring  again  your  captivity  before  your  eyes,  saith  the  Lord. 


Book   Second 


LYRIC    POETRY    OF    THE    BIBLE 


Chapter  Page 

V.    The  Biblical  Ode 127 

VL    Occasional     Poetry,     Elegies,    and     Liturgical 

Psalms .     153 

VIL     Dramatic  Lyrics  and  Lyrics  of  Meditation   .         -174 

VIIL     Lyric  Idyl:   'Solomon's  Song'  ....     194 


CHAPTER   V 


THE    BIBLICAL    ODE 


The  Ode  cannot  be  exactly  defined.     Etymologically  the  word 

is  equivalent  to  '  song ' ;  usage  seems  to  have  given  it  the  sense 

of  song  par  excellence :  the  lyric  poetry  that  is  furthest 

1  r  ,  J-    ,  ,  The  Ode 

removed  from  the  ordmary  speech,  and  nearest  to  pure 

music.     If  '  flight '  be   the  regular  image   for  the   movement  of 

lyric  poetry,  then  the  Ode  is  the  song  that  can  soar  highest  and 

remain  longest  on  the  wing.     Speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that 

it  is  distinguished  from  other  lyrics  by  greater  elaboration,  and 

(so  to  speak)  structural  consciousness.     Such  a  literary  form  will 

be  discussed    best   by  particular  examples,   and   a   commentary 

upon  the  Odes  of  the  Bible  will  introduce  us  to  lyric  modes  of 

movement  in  general. 

It  is  natural  to  commence  with  Deborah'' s  Sons..    This  is  the 
most  elaborate   of  Biblical  odes,   and  it  exercised  considerable 
influence   upon  succeeding  poetry.     There  is  an- 
other  circumstance   which    makes    it    particularly   ju^ "'^^  ^  ^  ^°°^ 
valuable  to  the  literary  student.     It  is  a  narrative 
poem,  and  the  story  it  narrates  is  in  tTie  previous  chapter  of 
yitdges  given  in  the  form  of  history.     A  careful  comparison  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters  of  that  book  will  enable  us  to  study 
the  diff'erences  between  lyric  narrative  and  narrative  as  it  appears 
in  history. 

Few  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  are  more  familiar,  or  more 
frequently  discussed,  than  the  incidents  that  enter  into  Deborah'' s 
Song.     Yet   I   think  there   are   important  elements  in  the  story 

127 


128  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

which  are  by  no  means  generally  understood.  The  first  point  that 
I  will  put  amounts  to  no  more  than  a  conjecture.     The  history 

opens  bv  saying  that  Israel  fell  under  the  dominion 
Dlmh'Tsong      ""^  ^^^^  ^ing  of  Canaan,  and  that  he  "mightily 

oppressed "  them  for  twenty  years.  Though  the 
Book  of  "yudges  is  full  of  similar  subjugations  of  Israel,  that  par- 
ticular phrase  is  nowhere  else  used  ;  the  suggestion  is  that  there 
was  something  different  in  kind  between  the  tyranny  of  Jabin  and 
Sisera  and  other  tyrannies.  May  it  be  that  this  oppression  wasof 
an  indescribable  nature,  affecting  person  as  well  as  property, — 
such  wanton  violence  as  appears  in  a  later  chapter  of  Judges  to 

have  brought  all  Israel  in  arms  against  a  city  of  Ben- 
Chapter  xx  O  J 

jamin?     If  this  conjecture  were  adopted,  it  would 

give   significance   to   the   striking  phrase   used   by  the   song  to 

describe  the  misery  of  the  oppression,  —  that  "  the  highways  were 

unoccupied  and  the  travellers  walked  through  byways."     It  would 

explain  how  it  was  that  the  tyranny  was  borne  without  resistance 

until  "  a  mother  in  Israel  "  roused  the  people  against  it.     It  would 

further  enable  us  to  understand  how  a  prophetess  could  exult  in 

the  strange  decree  of  Providence  by  which  the  instrument  of  a 

cruel  and  lustful  tyranny  met  his  doom  at  the  hands  of  a  woman. 

My  next  point  is  a  matter  of  certainty.     It  is  the  relation  to 

the  story  of  Heber  the  Kenite,  the  husband  of  Jael.     The  Kenites 

were  a  tribe  who  had  joined  Israel  in  the  wilderness ;  they  had 

become  a  part  of  the  chosen  nation  in  all  respects  except  one,  — 

that  they  still  retained  their  life  in  tents,  when  the  Israelites  had 

settled  down  in  villages  and  towns.     But  we  are  told  in  one  verse 

of  the  narrative  that  there  was  peace  between  the  oppress- 

iv.  17 

ing  tyrant  and  the  house  of  Heber  the  Kenite ;  another 
verse  tells  us  how  Heber  had  separated  himself  from  the  other 
Kenites,  and  "pitched  his  tent  as  far  as  the  oak  in 
Zaanannim,  which  is  by  Kedesh,"  that  is,  close  to  the 
muster  ground  of  Barak  ;  and  the  verse  that  follows  says,  '^Atid  they 
told  Sisera  that  Barak  the  son  of  Abinoam  was  gone  up 
to  mount  Tabor."    Though  the  phrasing  in  this  last  verse 


THE  BIBLICAL   ODE  129 

is  general,  yet  when  the  three  verses  are  taken  together  the  signifi- 
cance is  clear  enough  :  that  Heber  the  Kenite  was  a  spy  in  the 
pay  of  Jabin  and  Sisera,  and  that  he  had  shifted  his  tent  for  no 
reason  but  to  keep  a  watch  upon  the  movements  of  Israel,  and 
report  them  to  the  enemy.  But  there  would  seem  to  have  been 
one  in  his  tent  who  had  a  heart  to  feel  with  the  mothers  of  Israel ; 
as  a  sheikh's  wife  Jael  may  have  been  unable  to  hinder  her  hus- 
band's plans,  but  when  the  turn  of  events  had  come,  and  Sisera 
approached  her  as  a  fugitive,  there  was  a  sudden  opportunity 
before  her  to  strike  a  blow  on  the  side  which  she  had  never 
deserted.  Of  course  her  act  remains  a  treacherous  violation  of 
hospitality.  But  it  makes  some  difference  to  our  estimate  of  her 
that  it  was  treachery  done  to  redress  her  husband's  treachery  on 
the  opposite  side. 

It  is  worth  while,  again,  to  make  clear  the  military  situation. 
Jabin's  power  lay  in  his  "  nine  hundred  chariots  of  iron  "  :  against 
such  a  force  the  half  armed  infantry  of  Israel  would  be  almost 
useless.  Their  only  hope  lay  in  a  surprise  ;  and  Barak's  plan 
seems  to  have  been  to  arrange  a  quiet  muster  of  separate  tribes 
moving  towards  the  high  ground  by  Kedesh,  from  which  they 
might  watch  for  a  favourable  moment  and  make  a  rapid  descent. 
This  was  frustrated  by  the  treachery  of  Heber,  and  Sisera,  fore- 
warned, poured  his  full  forces  on  to  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which 
afforded  the  best  possible  ground  for  the  evolutions  of  chariots. 
Humanly  speaking,  there  was  no  hope  for  the  Israelites.  What 
changed  the  situation  we  learn  from  a  phrase  of  the  song  :  "  the 
stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera."  In  other  words, 
a  thunderstorm  and  its  torrents  of  rain  produced  the  effect  often 
described  by  travellers  in  Palestine  :  in  an  astonishingly  brief 
period  the  river  Kishon  would  overflow,  and  the  whole  plain  be 
flooded  ;  in  the  verses  of  the  song  we  can  almost  hear 

V.  22 

the  horses  plungmg  about  in  the  morass.     This  made  it 
possible  for  the  whole  of  the  formidable  army  to  be  exterminated 
in  a   single   day.      This   further   explains    the  bitterness    of  the 
curse  denounced  on  Meroz  —  some  city  of  Israel  on  the  line  of 


130  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

the  enemy's  retreat :  where  everything  depended  on  destroying 
the  army  before  they  could  extricate  themselves  from  the  raud, 
even  hesitation  might  amount  to  the  blackest  treachery. 

With  the  incident  thus  fully  before  us  we  are  in  a  position  to 

[make  our  comparison  of  the  two  narratives.     In  the  history  of 

the  fourth  chapter,  as  we  might  expect,  we  find 

Histonc  and  ^     narrative  connected  and  continuous.     It  com- 

Lync  Narrative 

mences  by  describing  the  oppression ;  it  proceeds 
to  tell  how  Deborah  arose  and  called  for  resistance  ;  it  gives  with 
some  minuteness  the  negotiations  by  which  Deborah  secured  Barak 
for  her  commander-in-chief.  We  next  hear  of  the  muster  at  Kedesh; 
the  treachery  of  Heber  is  then  implied  rather  than  directly  stated. 
The  battle  follows,  and  the  utter  rout ;  then  the  history  becomes 
detailed  as  it  deals  with  the  remarkable  circumstance  of  the  assas- 
sination of  Sisera  by  Jael. 

When  we  turn  to  the  song,  we  seem  to  find  this  connectedness 

and  continuity  of  narrative  avoided,  and  the  story  touched  only  in 

selected  parts.     I  am  tempted  to  convey  the  differ- 

Lyric  device  of  |^  illustration.      A   man  watches   some 

Concentration  ■' 

architectural  mass,  like  the  Church  of  St.  Mark  at 

Venice,  in  the  changing  light  of  evening.  As  long  as  full  daylight 
is  in  the  sky  he  sees  clearly  the  vivid  colouring,  and  the  architec- 
tural details,  and  the  numerous  gilded  points  and  spiracles  with 
which  the  whole  is  crowned.  With  the  waning  light  he  loses  the 
colour ;  then  the  car\'ing  and  rehef  sinks  into  a  uniform  surface. 
He  seems  to  be  losing  the  whole,  until  a  point  is  reached  when 
there  is  just  enough  light  left  to  catch  the  gilded  crosses  and  spira- 
cles :  then  instead  of  being  lost  the  whole  edifice  has  come  back 
to  him  in  an  outline  of  luminous  points.  This  seems  to  me  to 
afford  an  analogue  for  lyric  narrative.  The  daylight  view,  in  which 
the  whole  surface  is  visible  without  break,  represents  the  continuity 
of  the  history  ;  we  lose  that  in  the  song,  but  there  the  story  comes 
to  us  in  a  selection  of  points  every  one  of  which  is  luminous. 
First,  the  oppression  is  painted  by  two  picturesque  strokes  :  the 
deserted  highways,  the  vain  search  for  weapons.     All  the  negotia- 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  131 

tions  between  Deborah  and  Barak  are  omitted,  and  the  next  point 
of  narrative  is  the  muster,  made  luminous  by  the  enumeration  of 
the  tribes  that  refused,  and  the  tribes  that  came  zealously,  and  the 
tribe  that  changed  its  mind.  Nothing  more  follows  until  we  reach 
the  battle  and  rout,  all  brought  out  in  a  few  bold  strokes  —  kings 
coming  to  fight,  the  stars  fighting  against  them  ;  horses  plunging 
in  the  flooded  plain  \  the  sudden  bitterness  when  Meroz  proves 
unequal  to  the  crisis.  In  the  matter  of  the  assassination  even  the 
history  was  detailed.  But  here  again  there  was  a  logical  connect- 
edness in  the  details :  the  warrior  arriving,  making  provision 
against  surprise,  and  then  submitting  to  sleep  and  so  to  murder. 
But  in  the  lyric  we  leap  from  the  hospitable  matron  to  the  mur- 
deress taking  the  nail  and  hammer ;  what  remains  is  so  vivid  that 
we  can  count  the  blows  and  watch  the  writhings,  while  the  purely 
imaginary  detail  of  the  warrior's  household  waiting  his  return  is 
drawn  out  at  full  length.  This  concentration  of  a  whole  story  into 
a  few  luminous  details  gives  us  our  first  note  of  lyric  movement. 

A  second  distinguishing  feature  of  the  song  is  the  way  in  which 
the  narrative  is  delayed  or  broken  by  refrains,  or  by  what  are  called 
'  apostrophes,'  that  is,  passages  in  which  the  singers 
*  turn  aside '  from  the  story  to  address  heaven,  or  i^terrupUoE  ° 
the  bystanders,  or  one  another.  Three  lines  of 
refrain,  four  of  prelude,  and  a  long  apostrophe  to  God,  are  inter- 
posed before  the  narrative  even  commences.  Then  when  the 
desolation  of  the  country  under  Jabin's  oppression  has  been  told, 
there  is  a  break,  filled  up  by  the  refrain  recurring  in  an  enlarged 
form.  When  the  mustering  of  the  tribes  is  reached,  after  a  single 
line  there  is  an  abrupt  departure  from  the  narrative,  and  the  singers 
occupy  a  quatrain  with  cheering  one  another  on  to  their  task.  It 
is  clear  that  these  digressions  are  part  of  the  artistic  setting  to  the 
story.  When  water  flows  on  smoothly  without  any  check  it  may 
be  a  useful  canal  or  drain ;  but  the  poetic  brook  must  have  its 
course  delayed  by  many  a  winding,  and  interrupted  by  the  rocks 
over  which  it  foams.  We  may  then  add  interruption  to  the  devices 
of  lyric  movement. 


132  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

m 

A  third  feature  of  the  song  lies  upon  the  surface  :  its  structure 
is  such  as  to  imply  the  antiphojial  performance  in  which  one 
singer  or  set  of  singers  is  answered  by  another.     I 
fonnance^  ^^^~     must  dissent  however  from  the  usual  arrangement 
which  divides  Deborah's  Song  as  between  solo  and 
chorus.     It  seems  clear  that  the  nature  of  the  antiphony  is  given 
by  the  first  verse  of  the   chapter  —  "Then  sang  Deborah  and 
Barak "  :  not  that  the  two  individuals  sang  a  duet,  but  the  ode 
would  be  performed  by  a  Chorus  of  Women  with  Deborah  leading 
them,  and  a  Chorus  of  Men  led  by  Barak.     When  the  poem  is 
structurally  examined  in  the  light  of  this  suggestion,  not  only  do 
the  divisions  easily  present  themselves,  but  a  number  of  coinci- 
dences confirm  the  suggestion.     Thus  the"  Men  lead  off  with  a 
description  —  in  the  rhvthm  of  elegv  —  of  the  oppression  ; 

V.  6  '  ' 

Deborah  and  the  Women  break  in  (with  a  return  to  ordi- 
nary rhythm)  at  the  words,  "  I  Deborah  arose."     When  the  singers 
bid  publish  the  tidings  of  victory,  the  Men  call  to  those 
that  ride  or  walk  by  the  way,  or  sit  on  carpets  as  public 
officials,  —  that  is,  they  call  to  men ;    the  answering  Chorus  of 
Women  would  spread  the  news  "  in  the  places  of  drawing 
water,"  the  natural  spots  where  women  would  gather  and 
chat.     In  another  passage,  an  apostrophe  of  four  lines,  there  is 
one  couplet  of  the  Men  cheering  on  Deborah,  and  another 

13 

of  the  Women  cheering  on  Barak.     The  mustering  of  the 

tribes  divides  itself  line  by  fine  :  if  the  first  line  be  given  to  the 

Women,  as  relating  to  Ephraim  the  locality  of  Deborah, 

the  fourth  line  falls  to  the  Men  and  it  mentions  Zebulun, 

the  tribe  of  Barak  ;  the  next  fine  (of  the  Women)  connects  Issachar 

with  Deborah,  and  the  line  that  follows  (and  would  fall  to  the  Men) 

connects  the  same  tribe  with  Barak.     Then,  in  the  climax, 

the  Men  elaborately  picture  the  actual  murder  of  Sisera, 

and  the  Women  add  the  feminine  touch  of  the  mother  and  her 

ladies  awaiting  the  dead  warrior's  return.     It  is  hardly 

necessar)'  to  dilate  upon  the  artistic  effect  of  a  narrative 

thus  "iven  to  us  from  one  side  and  another  alternatelv.     One 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE 


133 


15-16 


single  antiphonal  effect  may  be  instanced.  Tlie  great  pastoral 
tribe  of  Reuben  was  amongst  the  defaulters.  This  is  brought  out 
by  the  Men  first  painting  Reuben's  '  resolves  ' ;  then  the 
Women  interpose  a  sarcastic  question  as  to  inaction  ;  then 
the  Men  repeat  their  former  couplet  with  the  change  of  a  single 
word  to  express  Reuben's  prudent  second  thoughts.  Finally,  the 
antiphonal  effect  is  varied  by  the  passages  in  which  the  two 
choruses  sing  together.  This  is  especially  powerful  at  the  close, 
where,  after  the  story  itself  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  two  bodies 
of  singers  to  its  last  detail,  there  is  a  sudden  break,  and  both 
choruses  unite  in  the  apostrophe,  "  So  perish  all  thine  enemies, 
O  Lord  ! " 

-  DEBORAH'S   SONG 
REFRAIN 

Men.  For  that  the  leaders  took  the  lead  in  Israel — 

Women.     For  that  the  people  offered  theinselves  willingly  — 
Tutti.        Bless  ye  the  LORD! 

Prelude 
Men.  Hear,  O  ye  kings  — 

Women.     Give  ear,  O  ye  princes  — 
Men.  I,  even  I,  will  sing  unto  the  Lord  — 

Women.     I  will  sing  praise  to  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel. 


Apostrophe 

Tutti.         Lord,  when  thou  wentest  forth  out  of  Seir, 

When  thou  marchedst  out  of  the  field  of  Edom, 

The  earth  trembled,  the  heavens  also  dropped, 

Yea,  the  clouds  dropped  water. 

The  mountains  flowed  down  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord, 

Even  yon  Sinai  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel. 

I.  The  Desolation 

Men.  In  the  days  of  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath, 

In  the  days  of  Jael, 
The  highways  were  unoccupied, 

And  the  travellers  walked  through  byways; 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel, 

They  ceased  — 


134 


LYRIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE 


Women.     Until  that  I,  Deborah,  arose, 

That  I  arose  a  mother  in  Israel, 
They  chose  new  gods; 
Then  was  war  in  the  gates : 
Was  there  a  shield  or  spear  seen 
Among  forty  thousand  in  Israel? 

REFRAIN  ENLARGED 

Men,  My  heart  is  toward  the  governors  of  Israel — 

Women.      Ye  that  offered  yourselves  zvillingly  among  the  people — 
Tutti.         Bless  ye  the  LORD  ! 
Men.  Tell  of  it,  ye  that  ride  on  ivhite  asses, 

Ye  that  sit  on  rich  carpets. 

And  ye  that  walk  by  the  way :  — 
Women.     Far  from  the  noise  vf  archers, 

In  the  places  of  drawing  water  :  — 
Tutti.  There  shall  they  rehearse  the  righteous  acts  of  the  LORD, 

Even  the  righteous  acts  of  his  rule  in  Israel. 

II.  The  Muster 
Tutti.         Then  the  people  of  the  Lord  went  down  to  the  gates  — 

(^Men.         Awake,  awake,  Deborah, 

Awake,  awake,  utter  a  song :  — 
Women.     Arise,  Barak, 

And  lead  thy  captivity  captive,  thou  son  of  Alnnoavi.) 

Tutti.        Then  came  down  a  remnant  of  the  nobles, 

The  people  of  the  Lord  came  down  for  me  against  the  mighty. 

Women.  Out  of  Ephraim  came  down  they  whose  root  is  in  Amalek  — 

Alen.  After  thee,  Benjamin,  among  thy  peoples  — 

Wofnen.  Out  of  Machir  came  down  governors  — 

Alen.  And  out  of  Zebulun  they  that  handle  the  marshal's  staff — 

Women.  And  the  princes  of  Issachar  were  with  Deborah  — 

Men.  As  was  Issachar,  so  was  Barak  : 

Tutti.  Into  the  valley  they  rushed  down  at  his  feet. 

Men.  By  the  watercourses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  resolves  of  heart. 
Women.     Why  satest  thou  among  the  sheepfolds, 

To  hear  the  pipings  for  the  flocks? 
Men.  At  the  watercourses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  searchings  of  heart ! 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE 


135 


Wot)ie7i.     Gilead  abode  beyond  Jordan  — 
Men.  And  Dan,  why  did  he  remain  in  ships?  — 

Women.     Asher  sat  still  at  the  haven  of  the  sea, 

And  abode  by  his  creeks. 
Men.  Zebulun  was  a  people  that  jeoparded  their  lives  unto  the  death, 

And  Naphtali,  upon  the  high  places  of  the  field. 

III.   The  Battle  and  Rout 

Strophe 

Men.  The  kings  came  and  fought; 

Then  fought  the  kings  of  Canaan, 

In  Taanach  by  the  waters  of  Megiddo  :  — 

They  took  no  gain  of  money  ! 

Antistrophe 

Women.     They  fought  from  heaven, 

The  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera, 
The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away,  — 
That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon ! 

S/rop/ie 

Men.  O  my  soul,  march  on  with  strength ! 

Then  did  the  horsehoofs  stamp 
By  reason  of  the  pransings, 
The  pransings  of  their  strong  ones. 

Antistrophe 

Women.     Curse  ye,  Meroz,  said  the  angel  of  the  Lord, 
Curse  ye  bitterly  the  inhabitants  thereof; 
Because  they  came  not  to  the  help  of  the  Lord, 
To  the  help  of  the  Lord  against  the  mighty  ! 


IV.  The  Retribution 

Strophe 

Men.  Blessed  above  women  shall  Jael  be, 

The  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite, 
Blessed  shall  she  be  above  women  in  the  tent ! 
He  asked  water,  and  she  gave  him  milk; 
She  brought  him  butter  in  a  lordly  dish. 


136  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

She  put  her  hand  to  the  nail, 

And  her  right  hand  to  the  workman's  hammer; 

And  with  the  hammer  she  smote  Sisera. 

She  smote  through  his  head, 

Yea,  she  pierced  and  struck  through  his  temples. 

At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell,  he  lay : 

At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell : 

Where  he  bowed,  there  he  fell  down  dead ! 

Antistrophe 

Women.     Through  the  window  she  looked  forth,  and  cried, 
The  mother  of  Sisera,  through  the  lattice, 
"  Why  is  his  chariot  so  long  in  coming? 
Why  tarry  the  wheels  of  his  chariots?  " 
Her  wise  ladies  answered  her. 
Yea,  she  returned  answer  to  herself, 
"  Have  they  not  found, 
Have  they  not  divided  the  spoil? 
A  damsel,  two  damsels  to  every  man; 
To  Sisera  a  spoil  of  divers  colours, 
A  spoil  of  divers  colours  of  embroidery, 
Of  divers  colours  of  embroidery  on  both  sides. 
On  the  necks  of  the  spoil?  " 

Apostrophe 

Tutti.         So  let  all  thine  enemies  perish,  O  Lord  : 
But  let  them  that  love  him 
Be  as  the  sun  when  he  goeth  forth  in  his  might ! 

The  ode  most  nearly  resembling  this  of  Deborah  is  the  So?ig 
of  Moses  and  Miriam  at  the  Red  Sea.  Here  again  the  mode  of 
Song  of  Moses  performance  is  exactly  indicated.  The  first  verse 
and  Miriam  says,  "  Then  sang  Moses  and  the  children  of  Israel 

Exodus  XV  jj^-g    g^j^g  „  .    ^^g    twentieth   verse    adds  :    "  And 

Miriam,  the  prophetess,  the  sister  of  Aaron,  took  a  timbrel  in 
her  hand ;  and  all  the  women  went  out  after  her  with  timbrels 
and  with  dances.  And  Miriam  answered  them,  Sing  ye  to  the 
Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously ;  the  horse  and  his  rider 
hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea."     The  natural  interpretation  of  these 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  137 

verses  taken  together  is  that  the  words  last  quoted  are  a  refrain, 
and  to  be  sung  by  Miriam  and  the  Women  ;  while  the  body  of  the 
Song  was  for  Moses  and  the  Men.  The  refrain  would  be  repeated 
at  the  close  of  each  stanza.  The  structure  suggests  a  prelude  and 
three  stanzas,  each  of  which  commences  with  an  apostrophe  to 
God,  and  then  deals  with  the  subject  of  the  deliverance.  A  further 
examination  of  these  strophes  reveals  the  lyric 
device  of  augmenting,  mentioned  in  a  previous  T^^J^V^J^ 
chapter ;  not  only  do  the  successive  strophes  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  their  lines,  but  they  bring  out  the  inci- 
dent with  more  and  more  fulness.  The  first  merely  refers  to  the 
event :  the  hosts  cast  into  the  sea  and  sinking  like  a  stone.  The 
second  stanza  becomes  a  picture  full  of  powerful  details :  floods 
standing  on  heaps  and  depths  congealed,  the  enemy  already 
counting  his  spoils,  the  single  blast  of  wind,  and  the  sinking  like 
lead.  But  when  the  incident  is  touched  by  the  third  stroplie  we 
have,  not  details,  but  consequences.  The  event  is  stretched  to 
take  in  all  that  will  follow  from  it :  the  guiding  through  the  mlder- 
ness  thus  wonderfully  opened  to  them,  the  terror  faUing  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  Canaan  and  the  kings  that  lie  in  the  way,  the  bring- 
ing in  and  planting  in  the  mountain  of  inheritance  —  all  poetically 
realised  in  the  moment  of  this  the  first  step.  To  describe  the 
movement  of  the  whole  ode  we  may  say  that  the  prelude  intro- 
duces the  great  deliverance  with  a  shock  that  is  like  a  plunge, 
and  the  augmenting  strophes  follow  like  ripples  widening  to  the 
furthest  bound  that  imagination  can  go. 

SONG   OF   MOSES   AND   MIRIAM 

Prelude 

Men  and  ]      /  will  sing  unto  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
IFomen.  J       The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  throvjn  into  tlie  sea. 
The  Lord  is  my  strength  and  song, 
And  he  is  become  my  salvation  : 
This  is  my  God,  and  I  will  praise  him; 
My  father's  God,  and  I  will  exalt  liim. 


138 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Men.  The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war : 

The  Lord  is  his  name. 

Pharaoh's  chariots  and  his  host  hath  he  cast  into  the  sea ; 

And  his  chosen  captains  are  sunk  in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  deeps  cover  them  : 

They  went  down  into  the  depths  like  a  stone. 
Wo7nen.       Sing  ye  to  ihe  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 


Men.  Thy  right  hand,  O  Lord,  is  glorious  in  power, 

Thy  right  hand,  O  LORD,  dasheth  in  pieces  the  enemy. 

And  in  the  greatness  of  thine  excellency  thou  overthrowest  them 
that  rise  up  against  thee  : 

Thou  sendest  forth  thy  wrath,  it  consumeth  them  as  stubble. 

And  with  the  blast  of  thy  nostrils  the  waters  were  piled  up, 

The  floods  stood  upright  as  an  heap; 

The  deeps  were  congealed  in  the  heart  of  the  sea. 

The  enemy  said, 

I  will  pursue,  I  will  overtake,  I  will  divide  the  spoil : 

My  lust  shall  be  satisfied  upon  them; 

I  will  draw  my  sword,  my  hand  shall  destroy  them. 

Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind,  the  sea  covered  them : 

They  sank  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters. 
Women.      Sing  ye  to  the  LORD.,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  throivn  into  the  sea. 


Men.  Who  is  like  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  among  the  gods  ? 

Who  is  like  thee,  glorious  in  hoHness, 
Fearful  in  praises,  doing  wonders  ? 
Thou  stretchedst  out  thy  right  hand, 
The  earth  swallowed  them. 

Thou  in  thy  mercy  hast  led  the  people  which  thou  hast  redeemed ; 
Thou  hast  guided  them  in  thy  strength  to  thy  holy  habitation. 
The  peoples  have  heard,  they  tremble : 
Pangs  have  taken  hold  on  the  inhabitants  of  Philistia. 
Then  were  the  dukes  of  Edom  amazed; 
The  mighty  men  of  Moab,  trembling  taketh  hold  upon  them : 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  139 

All  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan  are  melted  away. 

Terror  and  dread  falleth  upon  them; 

By  the  greatness  of  thine  arm  they  are  as  still  as  a  stone; 

Till  thy  people  pass  over,  O  Lord, 

Till  the  people  pass  over,  which  thou  hast  purchased. 

Thou  shalt  bring  them  in,  and  plant  them  in  the  mountain  of  thine 

inheritance. 
The  place,  O  Lord,  which  thou  hast  made  for  thee  to  dwell  in, 
The  sanctuary,  O  Lord,  which  thy  hands  have  established. 
The  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever. 
Women.      Sing  ye  to  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 

The  ode  next  to  be  considered  is  amongst  the  most  powerful 

of  all  sacred   lyrics :    but  totally  unlike    the   two 

.  .  Psalm  Ixxviii 

already  reviewed.     It  is  the  seventy-eighth  psalm. 

As  to  its  subject,  it  is  sufficient  at  this  point  to  say  that  it  is  a  sur- 
vey of  the  history  of  Israel,  leading  up  to  the  call  of  Judah  to  be 
the  Lord's  people  now  that  Northern  Israel  has  fallen  away.  The 
form  of  the  ode  gives  a  type  of  lyric  movement  different  from  any 
we  have  yet  seen,  but  one  specially  characteristic  of  Biblical  poetry, 
and  we  shall  meet  with  it  again  and  again.     It  may 

be  called  the  pendulum  movement:  the  course  of  Pendulum Move- 

^  ment 

thought  in  a  poem  seems  to  swing  backwards  and 

forwards  between  two  ideas  or  two  phases   of  a   subject.     The 

psalm  has  an  unusually  long  prelude.     It  is  a  common 

device  in  music  to  prepare  the  way  for  some  great  theme 

by  a  succession  of  trumpet  tones,  the  reiteration  of  which  keeps 

the  mind  in  a  state  of  expectation  that  helps  to  emphasise  the 

theme  when  it  comes.     By  a  similar  effect  in  this  prelude  the 

psalmist  announces  a  law,  a  parable,  sayings  of  old,  traditions  from 

fathers  to  be  told  to  children,  that  they  may  tell  it  to  the  next 

generation,  that  these  may  set  their  hopes  in  God,  and  not  be,  as 

their  fathers,  a  rebellious  generation  whose  spirit  was  not  stedfast 

with  God.     The  phrase  "  not  stedfast "  seems  the  point  leading 

to  the  regular  movement  of  the  poem  and  its  alternating  stanzas. 

The  thought  sways  throughout  the  rest  of  the  ode  between  two 


140  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

ideas  :  on  one  hand  we  see  bursts  of  Divine  Energy  in  behalf  of 

Israel ;   on  the  other  hand  we  have  the  dead  weight  of  human 

dulness  and  frailtv  bv  which  the  Dinne  purposes 

9-II,  Frailty  "       '  r     i- 

are  fixistrated.  First,  a  short  stanza  puts  the  defec- 
tion of  Northern  Israel  under  the  metaphor  of  battalions  deserting 
on  the  field  of  battle  ;  "  so  the  children  of  Ephraim  "  deserted 
the  covenant  and  forgat  God's  wondrous  works.     At  the  words 

"  wondrous  works "   the  pendulum  of  movement 

ia-i6.  Divine         swings  to  the  other  side  :  we  have  an  outburst  of 
Bnersy 

Divine  Energy,  the  energy'  of  DeUverance.      We 

hear  how  he  piled  up  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  in  a  heap  ;  how 

the  fire  led  them  by  night  and  the  cloud  by  day  ;  how  the  dn.'  rock 

was  cloven  and  poured  out  streams  with  the  fiill  flow  of  a  river. 

But  it  is  in  vain  (the  movement  has  swung  back)  : 

the  deUvered  people  are  found  intent  upon  their 

appetites,  and  the  doubts  which  a  life  of  appetite  engenders. 

Can  God  prepare  a  table  in  the  wildemess  ? 

Behold,  he  smote  the  rock,  that  waters  gushed  out. 

And  streams  overflowed; 

Can  he  give  bread  also? 

Will  he  provide  flesh  for  his  peofde? 

We  are  thus  brought  to  another  turn  in  the  movement,  and  there 
is  a  burst  of  DiWne  Energ)',  this  time  the  energ}- 
^-  --  "-~— -         of  Judgment.     The  rush  of  verses  suggests  the 
scornful  ease  with  which  the  skies  are  bidden  to 
open  and  rain  down  manna,  the  winds  are  guided  so  that  they 
rain  flesh  as  dust  and  winged  fowl  as  the  sand  of  the  seas ;  then, 
before  the  people  have  time  to  be  satiated,  the  Wrath  is  slaying 
amongst  them,  so  close  comes  the  punishment  upon  the  lusL     But 
judgment,  like  mercy,  has  no  permanent  hold  up>on 
the  unstedfast  people;   the  movement  has  swung 
back,  as  the  history-  setdes  down  to  a  wearisome  iteration  of  sin- 
ning, repenting  and  sinning,  of  dissembling  repentance  and  com- 
passionate forgiveness. 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  141 

For  all  this  they  sinned  still, 

And  believed  not  in  his  wondrous  works. 

Therefore  their  days  did  he  consume  in  vanity, 

And  their  years  in  terror. 

When  he  slew  them,  then  they  inquired  after  him : 

And  they  returned  and  sought  God  early; 

And  they  remembered  that  God  was  their  rock, 

And  the  Most  High  God  their  redeemer. 

But  they  flattered  him  with  their  mouth, 

And  lied  unto  him  with  their  tongue. 

For  their  heart  was  not  stedfast  with  him, 

Neither  were  they  faithful  in  his  covenant. 

But  he,  being  full  of  compassion,  forgave  their  iniquity, 

And  destroyed  them  not : 

Yea,  many  a  time  turned  he  his  anger  away. 

And  did  not  stir  up  all  his  wrath. 

And  he  remembered  that  they  were  but  flesh; 

A  wind  that  passeth  away,  and  cometh  not  again. 

How  oft  did  they  rebel  against  him  in  the  wilderness. 

And  grieve  him  in  the  desert ! 

And  they  turned  again  and  tempted  God, 

And  provoked  the  Holy  One  of  Israel. 

They  remembered  not  his  hand. 

Nor  the  day  when  he  redeemed  them  from  the  adversary. 

This  phrase  is  the  signal  for  another  turn  in  the  movement,  and 
the  following  strophe  is  filled  with  the  Divine  Energy  of  Redemp- 
tion.    It  displays  before  us,  as  in  a  finished  picture, 
side  by  side  the  judgments  falling  on  the  enemy  '^'^^'    ^^^^^ 
and   the   tenderness    bestowed   upon  Israel ;    how 
wrath,  indignation,  and  trouble,  a  band  of  angels  of  evil,  make  a 
path  for  God's  anger,  as  plagues  strike  the  land  of  Egypt  and 
pestilence  preys  upon  its  people  ;  while  Israel  is  guided  like  a 
flock  of  sheep  through  the  wilderness,  and  brought  into  the  moun- 
tain land  of  their  inheritance.     All  this  is  lost  upon  them  :   we 
have  returned  to  the  theme  of  frailty  and  unsted- 

c  1  1      •       1     •    1        1      /-  56-64,  Frailty 

fastness  as  we  see  the  people  m  their  land  of  prom- 
ise settling  down  to  the  worship  of  the  high  places,  until  God 
comes  to  greatly  abhor  Israel.     And  as  he  silently  forsakes  them 


142  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

gradually  their  strength  and  glory  depart ;  violence  cuts  off  the 
youth,  the  maidens  have  no  marriage-song,  the  very 

65-72,  ivine  priests  fall  by  the  sword,  and  their  widows  make 
no  lamentation.     Suddenly  the  movement  of  the 

ode  swings  round  for  the  last  time. 

Then  the  Lord  awaked  as  one  out  of  sleep, 

Like  a  mighty  man  that  shouteth  by  reason  of  wine. 

With  one  stroke  the  enemy  is  thrust  back  for  ever ;  and  then  the 
final  burst  of  Divine  Energy  is  seen  in  a  New  Call :  as  before  the 
whole  nation  of  Israel  had  been  called  out  from  the  whole  world 
to  become  a  peculiar  people  to  Jehovah,  so  now  he  passes  over 
Joseph  and  Ephraim,  and  chooses  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  he  takes 
David  from  the  sheepfolds  to  be  their  shepherd  ;  and  the  unsted- 
fastness  which  has  reigned  throughout  the  ode  finds  a  final 
contrast  in  the  Sanctuary  which  he  builds  like  the  heights, 

Like  the  earth  which  he  hath  established  for  ever. 

This  seventy-eighth  psalm  is  one  of  four  which  I  have  ventured 

to  group  together  under  the  title  of  '  National  Anthems.'     True, 

they  are  very  different  from  what  in  modern  times 

National  An-         ^^.^  (,^]]g(^  ^^y  ^^^  name  ;  but  the  difference  tallies 

with  differences  of  circumstances.  With  us  a 
National  Anthem  may  well  be  a  simple  and  brief  lyric,  for  proba- 
bly the  nation  is  constituted  a  nation  by  some  elementary  con- 
sideration of  race  or  habitat.  But  Israel  had  been  called  out  of 
its  original  land,  had  been  led  from  one  part  of  the  world  to 
another,  had  been  constituted  the  chosen  people  of  Ood  by  a 
long  course  of  Providential  discipline.  It  is  natural  therefore 
that  the  National  Hymn  of  such  a  people  should  take  the  form 
of  a  review  of  their  history  and  relation  to  God.  It  is  just  such 
a  review  which  makes  the  common  ground  between  the  four 
psalms  ;  and  when  we  examine  their  differences  the  results  both 
confirm  the  classification,  and  explain  further  how  it  comes  that 
Israel  should  have  four  National  Anthems  and  not  one.     We  have 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  143 

seen  that  the  seventy-eighth  psalm  is  characterised  by  a  continu- 
ous alternation  between  God's  achievements  for  his   „ 

Psalm  Ixxviii 

people  and  their  persistent  ingratitude  and  sin,  and   Anthem  of  South- 
that  it  ends  with  the  final  rejection  of  Ephraim  and   ^™  Israel 
the  call  to  Judah.     It  is  thus  fitted  to  be  the  National  Anthem 
of  Southern  Israel  when  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  has  been 

overthrown  and  destroyed.     The  psalm  most  nearly  „    , 

•'  ^  -'     Psalm  cvi 

resembling  this  is  the  hundred  and  sixth  :  not  only  Anthem  of  the 
general  drift,  but  many  of  its  phases  seem  echoes   •^^Pti'^'^ty 
of  the  seventy-eighth  psalm.     But  the  pendulum  structure  is  almost 
lost  by  the  preponderance  of  one  side  of  the  thought ;  from  first 
to  last  it  is  sin  and  rebellion  which  dominates  the  poem,  and  the 
history  is  carried  on  to  the  final  fall. 

He  made  them  also  to  be  pitied 

Of  all  those  that  carried  them  captives. 

Save  us,  O  Lord  our  God, 

And  gather  us  from  among  the  nations, 

To  give  thanks  unto  thy  holy  name, 

And  to  triumph  in  thy  praise. 

Thus  this  hundred  and  sixth  psalm  would  seem  to  be  the  Hymn 
of  Southern  Israel  modified  so  as  to  make  it  the  Anthem  of  the 
Captivity.     There  is   a   great  difference  when  we   Psalm  cv 
come  to  the  historic  survey  which  makes  the  hun-   undivided  n  ^ 
dred  and  fifth  psalm.     Here  all  trace  of  an  alterna-   tion  in  Canaan 
tion  between  God's  work  and  Israel's  sin  is  gone.    And  the  history 
is  carried  just  as  far  as  the  conquest  of  Canaan  and  no  farther. 

And  he  gave  them  the  lands  of  the  nations; 

And  they  took  the  labour  of  the  peoples  in  possession. 

This  of  itself  would  suggest  that  we  have  here  the  Anthem  of  the 
undivided  nation  in  the  promised  land ;  and  the  suggestion  is 
confirmed  by  the  wording  of  the  reference  to  the  covenant  : 

Saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan, 
The  lot  of  your  inheritance  :  " 
When  they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number; 
Yea,  very  few,  and  sojourners  in  it. 


IH  LYRIC  POETRY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

It  is  natural  in  the  moment  of  conquest  to  go  back  to  the  old 

sojourn  in  the  land.     And  similar  considerations  explain 

the  large  amount  of  space  given  in  this  song  to  Joseph, 

the  individual  through  whom  Israel  departed  out  of  Canaan  .and 

went  down  into  Egypt.     The  fourth  psalm  of  the 

Anthem  of  the       g^oup,  the  hundred  and  thirty-sixth,  is  marked  off 

Nation  in  the        from   all   the   rest  by  the   primitive   character   of 

its  structure  :    the  second  line  of  each  couplet  is 

the  refrain. 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

The  whole  poem  is  of  the  simplest  type.  Its  history  never  reaches 
Canaan,  but  prominence  is  given  to  Sihon  king  of  the  Amorites, 
and  Og  king  of  Bashan,  and  it  is  their  land  which  is  made  a  heri- 
tage for  Israel.  Clearly  this  is  the  National  Anthem  of  the  people 
in  the  wilderness  ;  and  in  this  light  the  final  theme  of  praise  — 

He  giveth  food  to  all  flesh  — 

becomes  more  than  a  commonplace ;  it  is  a  reference  to  the 
miraculous  feeding  of  the  people  in  the  desert.  The  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  people  of  Israel,  then,  have  sufficiently 
explained  why  we  should  have  four  National  Anthems  in  these 
four  historic  psalms  :  the  simple  rhythmic  Hymn  of  the  Wilder- 
ness, the  Hymn  of  the  whole  nation  in  Canaan  with  its  unbroken 
exultation,  the  Hymn  of  Southern  Judah  after  the  fall  of  the  north, 
swaying  evenly  between  Divine  manifestations  and  national  sin,  and 
the  Hymn  of  the  Captivity,  in  which  all  is  swallowed  up  in  the 
idea  of  national  unfaithfulness. 

The   sixty-eighth   psalm,  notwithstanding   the    difficulty  of  its 
details,  impresses  every  reader  with  the  vigour  of  its  movement. 

Historians  differ  widely  as  to  its  exact  occasion  : 
Psalm  Ixvm  •' 

Processional  but  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  identify  it  with  some 

^^®  procession  to  the  sanctuary  on  Mount  Zion.     Its 

spirit  is  throughout  that  of  a  Processional  Ode.  In  structure  it 
is  made  up  of  a  prelude  and  three  elaborate  strophes.  The 
j-6  prelude  is  a  general  cry  of  triumph  :   God  rising  up  and 


THE   BIBLICAL    ODE  145 

his  enemies  vanishing  like  smoke.  But  even  here  there  is  a  hint  of 
procession  in  the  verse  which  speaks  of  a  high  way  for  him  that 
rideth  through  the  deserts.  Hebrew  poetry,  whatever  its  immedi- 
ate subject  may  be,  is  apt  to  preface  this  by  a  reference  to  God's 
original  deliverance  of  his  people  and  their  journey  to  the  promised 
land.  The  first  strophe  is  devoted  to  this  topic ;  and 
such  is  the  sweep  of  its  concentrated  movement  that  the 
whole  past  history  of  Israel  resolves  itself  into  a  procession  of 
Jehovah  from  Sinai  to  Zion.  In  one  verse  we  have  the  mountains 
trembling  amid  the  giving  of  the  Law ;  in  the  next  we  read  of  the 
rain  of  manna  strengthening  the  weary  wanderers.  Then  we  come 
to  the  era  of  fighting  that  intervenes  between  the  wilderness  life 
and  the  land  of  promise,  the  whole  era  appearing  as  but  two 
moments :  • 

The  Lord  giveth  the  word  [of  command]  : 

The  women  that  publish  the  tidings  [of  victory]  are  a  great  host. 

The  various  victories  are  picturesquely  suggested  by  snatches 
of  the  old  triumph-songs  (of  which  we  of  course  know  nothing 
but  these  snatches). 

"  Kings  of  armies  flee,  they  flee, 
And  she  that  tarrieth  at  home  divideth  the  spoil"  — 

"  Will  ye  lie  among  the  sheepfolds?  "  — 

"  As  the  wings  of  a  dove  covered  with  silver, 
And  her  pinions  with  yellow  gold  "  — 

"When  the  Almighty  scattered  kings  therein, 
It  was  as  when  it  snoweth  in  Zalmon  "  — 

In  the  real  history  generations  intervened  between  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  eastern  table-lands  and  the  final  conquest  of  Zion,  but 
in  the  sweep  of  this  ode  the  two  periods  are  brought  together, 
and  the  mountain  of  Bashan  looks  askance  at  the  mountain  God 
has  chosen  for  his  abode.  And  as  a  final  climax  to  the  history, 
Jehovah  ascends  into  the  sanctuary  with  his  thousands  of  chariots 


146  LYRIC  POETRY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

and  leads  captivity  captive.     In  the  second  strophe  the  point  of 
view  changes  from  the  past  to  the  present :  God  appears 
as  "  the  Lord  who  daily  beareth  our  burden."     And  here 
the  actual  procession  of  the  day  is  pictured  —  "  the  goings  of  my 
God,  my  king,  into  the  sanctuary  "  :  how  singers  go  before,  min- 
strels follow  after,  and  the  tribes  are  represented  in  their  due  rank. 
The  third  strophe  surveys  the  glorious  future ;  but  here 
again  the  dominant  spirit  of  the  poem  appears,  and  the 
whole  future  becomes  a  procession  of  kings  and  peoples  coming 
with  tribute   to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  the  rear  brought  up  by 
the  remote  Ethiopia  stretching  out  its  hands  to  God.     Thus  this 
Processional  Ode  has  reflected  the  spirit  of  the  occasion  it  cele- 
brates upon  all  time,  and  made  the  past,  the  present,  and  the 
future  appear  before  us  as  a  series  of  vast  processions. 

Four  odes  may  be  taken  together  from  their  similarity  of  matter 
and  form.     Their  purpose  is  not  so  much  narrative  as  the  realisa- 
tion of  an  idea.     In  structure  each  has  a  closely 
Songs  in  Ode  form        ,        .  ,     ,  ,      ,  ,-,,,,        ^    . 

related  prelude  and  close,  while  the  body  of  the 

ode  is  one  continuous  outburst.     One  of  the  four  is  David's  Song 

Sone  of  Moses        °^  Deliverance   analysed  in   a    previous    chapter.^ 

Deuteronomy         Akin  to  this  is  the  Song  of  Moses  in  £)eutero?iotny. 

^^"  Its  subject  is  announced  by  the  prelude  as  God 

the  immovable  Rock,  in  contrast  with  the  Israel  that  has  been 

unfaithful  and  changeable.     Such  a  subject  is  naturally 

developed  by  the  mode  of  alternation  —  the  pendulum 

structure  we  have  traced  in  another  ode.     The  first  phase  of  the 

poem  brings  out  how  the  Lord's  portion  is  his  people, 

6  14 

lingering  upon  the  thought  with  images,  first  of  tender- 
ness, then  of  immeasurable  bounty.     The  turning  point  comes  as 

Teshurun  waxes  fat  and  kicks,   and   this  second    phase 
15-18  .  ' 

presents  Israel  provoking  Jehovah  with  new  gods  that 

came    up   but   yesterday,   which   their   fathers   had   not   known. 

The  movement  swings  back  to  the  unswerving  nature  of 
19  27 

God,  now  seen  in  judgments  that  set  all  nature  on  fire 

1  Above,  page  83. 


THE   BIBLICAL    ODE  147 

and   stop  short  only  of  absolute   destruction.     Another  turning 

point  is  made  as  the  poet  breaks  in  to  cry  out  at  the 

folly  and  blindness  of  the  people,  and  the  loathly  gods 

to  which  they  have  given  the  preference.     By  a  bold  transition 

this  last  description   is  made  to  cause  revulsion  in  the 

mind  of  God  himself,  who  thinks  with  complacency  on 

the  vdngeance  he  yet  has  in  his  storehouse,  and  the  poem  reaches 

its  final  phase  in  exhibiting  God    as   using   this  vengeance    on 

the  side  of  his  erring  people  when  they  have  sunk  to  their  last 

extremity. 

The  other  two  odes  of  the  group  have  this  in  common,  that  the 
prelude  and  close  express  subjective  feelings  of  the  poet,  while 
the  rest  of  the  ode  presents  objective  phenomena,  psaimxxix 
The  twenty-ninth  psalm  is  the  Ode  of  the  Thun-  Song  of  the 
derstorm.  The  body  of  the  ode  has  •'  the  Voice  Thunderstorm 
of  Jehovah  "  for  its  refrain  ;  it  is  the  realisation  of  a  thunderstorm, 
rising  in  the  waters  to  the  north,  passing  overhead  with  every  form 
of  violence,  and  dying  away  over  the  wilderness  to  the  south,  until 
all  nature  has  again  become  a  hymn  of  praise  to  its  Maker.  In 
the  prelude  the  poet,  as  if  awed  by  the  approaching  manifestation 
of  God,  calls  upon  all  creatures  to  worship.  In  the  close  he  ex- 
presses the  sense  of  protection  that  has  been  with  him  ;  his  God 
presided  over  the  floods  from  which  the  tempest  arose,  and  he 
will  be  king  for  ever.  By  an  exquisite  touch  of  detail,  the  last 
note  in  this  song  of  thunder  is  the  word  '  peace.'  The  '  Prayer 
of  Habakkuk  '  is  a  similar  ode  on  a  much  larger 

scale.     Here  is  no  thunderstorm,  but  a  whole  uni-   ^''^y^''  °*  f^''.^^' 

'  kuk  (chapter  in) 

verse  racked  with  terrors  as  the  Almighty  comes  to 
judgment.  The  prelude  and  close  present  the  tumult  of  emotions 
in  the  prophet's  own  heart.  Though  the  interposition  of  God  is 
on  his  side,  yet  he  cannot  restrain  himself  from  joining  in  the 
universal  trembling.  At  the  same  time  he  confides  in  God  ;  and 
yet  again  there  is  a  third  train  of  emotion  where  the  prophet  is 
astonished  at  his  own  confidence,  that  he  should  be  at  rest,  waiting 
for  the  day  of  trouble  :  at  rest  — 


148  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

For  though  the  fig  tree  shall  not  blossom, 
Neither  shall  fruit  be  in  the  vines; 
The  labour  of  the  olive  shall  fail, 
And  the  fields  shall  yield  no  meat; 
The  flock  shall  be  cut  off  from  the  fold. 
And  there  shall  be  no  herd  in  the  stalls : 
Yet  I  will  rejoice  in  the  Lord, 
I  will  joy  in  the  God  of  my  salvation. 

There  remains  a  group  of  Odes  on  set  Themes.     The  hundred 

and  seventh  psalm  is  the  Ode  of  the  Redeemed. 
Odes  on  Themes  , 

When  its  prekide  has  called  upon  "  the  redeemed 
of  the  Lord"  to  praise  him,  the  regular  movement  of  the  ode 
begins.  First  we  have  the  strophic^  structure  already  described 
in  a  previous  chapter;  four  stanzas  with  double  refrains,  each 
Ode  of  the  Re-  Stanza  putting  some  particular  type  of  distress,  with 
deemed  its  cry  to  God  for  help  and  its  song  of  deliverance. 

But  when  this  has  been  fully  worked  out  the 
movement  of  the  poem  is  not  exhausted.  The  structure  entirely 
changes,  and  the  pendulum  movement  comes  in.  A  series  of 
alternations,  Hke  the  diminuendo  and  crescendo  of  the  musician, 
present  the  God  of  the  Redeemed  as  a  God  that  brings  low 
and  builds  up  again. 

He  turneth  rivers  into  a  wilderness, 

And  watersprings  into  a  thirsty  ground, 

A  fruitful  land  into  a  salt  desert. 

For  the  wickedness  of  them  that  dwell  therein. 

He  turneth  a  wilderness  into  a  pool  of  water, 

And  a  dry  land  into  watersprings. 

And  there  he  maketh  the  hungry  to  dwell. 

That  they  may  prepare  a  city  of  habitation; 

And  sow  fields,  and  plant  vineyards. 

And  get  them  fruits  of  increase. 

He  blesseth  them  also  so  that  they  are  multiplied  greatly; 

And  he  suffereth  not  their  cattle  to  decrease. 

^  Above,  page  65. 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  149 

Again  they  are  minished  and  bowed  down 

Through  oppression,  trouble,  and  sorrow. 

He  poureth  contempt  upon  princes, 

And  causeth  them  to  wander  in  the  waste,  where  there  is  no  way. 

Yet  setteth  he  the  needy  on  high  from  affliction, 
And  maketh  him  families  Uke  a  flock. 
The  upright  shall  see  it,  and  be  glad; 
And  all  iniquity  shall  stop  her  mouth. 

The  Ode  on  the  Covenant  (Psalm  eighty-nine)  is  transparently 
clear  in  its  language ;    it   needs    mention   only  because    of  the 
peculiarity  of  its  structure.     It  seems  strange  to   odeontheCov- 
find  an  ode,  the  prelude  of  which  announces  a  song  enant 
of  God's  mercies  and    their  eternal    faithfulness,   P^aimixxxix 
ending  with  a  long  wail  over  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  as  rejected 
and  forsaken.     At  first  we  are  tempted  to  think  of  this  final  section 
as  outside  the  unity  of  the  poem,  the  addition  of  spme  later  age. 
But  a  close  examination  of  the   structure  makes  it  possible  to 
include  the  elegy  within  the  ode.     We  have  seen  that  interruption 
is  amongst  the  devices  of  lyric  movement.     There  is  an  example 
of  this  on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  psalm  :  no 
sooner  has  the  Divine  message  of  the  Covenant  been  announced 
in  four  hnes,  than  a  break  occurs  — 

And  the  heavens  shall  praise  thy  wonders,  O  Lord  — 

The  style  wholly  changes,  and  an  outburst  of  exultation  is  carried 
on  for  twenty-nine  lines,  making  one  of  the  loftiest  strains  of  ado- 
ration in  the  whole  psalter.     The  second  strophe  returns 

19-37 
to  the  subject  of  the  Covenant  in  an  elaborate  vision,  to 

which  succeeds  the  section  of  sorrow  and  complaint.  The  sym- 
metry then  of  the  whole  poem  suggests  that  the  change  to  lamen- 
tation is  an  interruption  of  the  second  strophe  as  the  burst  of 
exultation  was  an  interruption  of  the  first. 

Two  odes  —  one  on  the  Messiah,  the  other  an  ode  of  Judgment 
—  resemble  one  another  in  their  general  form;  in  each  a  Divine 


150  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

monologue   is  prefaced  by  a  scenic  introduction.     The  second 

psalm  opens  with  the  busy  schemes  of  earthly  rulers 

Ode  on  the  Mes-      r  r  j  j 

siah  against  the  Lord's  anointed,  while  up  in  the  heavens 

Psalm  11  Jehovah    mocks  them  and  sets  up   His  King  on 

Zion.     Then,  either  in  the  words  of  this  Messiah  or  in  the  words 
of  the  psalmist,  the   Divine  decree  is  given,  and  the  kings  are 
called  upon  to  submit  while  there  is  time.     The  same  general 
form  appears  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  fiftieth  psalm. 

deo  ju  gmen      ^-^     whole  world  has  been  summoned  to  the  bar 
Psalm  1 

of  God  ;  the  prelude  brings  out  the  scene  dramati- 
cally, in  the  words  of  God's  people,  who  are  awaiting,  with  exulta- 
tion, the  opening  of  this  High  Court. 

"  Out  of  Zion,  the  perfection  of  beauty, 
God  hath  shined  forth. 

Our  God  Cometh,  and  shall  not  keep  silence : 
A  fire  devoureth  before  him, 
And  it  is  very  tempestuous  round  about  him." 

All  are  assembled,  the  '  saints  of  God '  on  one  side,  and  the 
wicked  opposite  to  them ;  only  the  heavens  themselves  are  left 
to  be  spectators  in  this  Act  of  Justice.  From  this  point  the 
structure  becomes  antistrophic.  First,  God  addresses  his  faithful 
people  :  he  has  not  come  to  exact  of  them  more  sacrifices  or  take 
more  of  their  bullocks  and  he-goats  ;  it  is  by  their  cries  to  him  in 
trouble  and  their  thanksgiving  when  deliverance  has  come  that 
they  can  truly  glorify  their  God.  In  the  antistrophe  God  turns 
to  the  wicked  :  how  have  they  dared  to  join  in  his  worship,  while 
they  were  partakers  in  evil  and  crime?  It  is  he  who  ordereth  his 
conversation  aright  that  shall  see  the  salvation  of  God. 

Finally  we  have  two  companion  odes  in  the  hundred  and  third 

and    hundred    and   fourth   psalms.     Not   only  are   these   poems 

.    ^,        united  by  their  structure  —  the  common  envelop- 

CompanionOdes:  •'  _ 

Psalm  ciii,  the  ing  refrain,  "  Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul  "  —  but  in 
World  withm  subject-matter  the  two  are  so  related  that  neither 
can  be  fully  appreciated  unless  it  is  read  in  connection  with  the 


THE  BIBLICAL   ODE  151 

other.  The  subjects  which  make  the  two  parts  of  the  nineteenth 
psalm  are  here  again  found  in  association  :  the  World  within  and 
the  World  without  are  the  themes  of  these  companion  poems.  In 
the  hundred  and  third  psalm  the  poet,  immediately  after  the 
opening  refrain,  calls  upon  all  that  is  within  him  to  offer  grateful 
praise ;  and  when  the  benefits  which  call  for  this  gratitude  are 
enumerated  they  are  found  to  be  such  benefits  as  affect  the 
individual,  personal,  spiritual  life. 

Who  forgiveth  all  thine  iniquities; 

Who  healeth  all  thy  diseases; 

Who  redeemeth  thy  life  from  destruction; 

Who  crovvneth  thee  with  lovingkindness  and  tender  mercies : 

Who  satisfieth  thy  mouth  with  good  things; 

So  that  thy  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle. 

God's  dealings  with  Israel  are  referred  to  only  as  a  revelation  of 

his  ways ;  and  the  revelation  is  of  a  kind  that  the  individual  life 

needs  :  compassion  for  the  erring,  a  mercy  as  high  as  heaven  is 

above  the   earth,  a  father  pitying  his  children,  a  God  knowing 

man's  frame  to  be  but  dust ;    the  revelation  of  a  righteousness 

descending  to  children's  children,  while  individual  Hves  of  men 

are  but  the  grass-'seed  blown  away  by  the  wind.      Then  for  its 

cHmax  this  hymn  of  the  spiritual  life  rises  to  spiritual  creatures  : 

angels  that  excel  in  strength,  hosts  of  the  Lord  that  are  ministers 

of  his  pleasure  in  all  places  of  his  dominion. 

The  hundred  and  fourth  psalm  starts  at  once  with  the  external 

universe.    This  is  presented  as  the  tabernacle  in  which  God  dwells  : 

its  tent-pole  reaches  from  the  waters  that  are  below       ^  „   , 

'  and  Psalm  civ, 

to  the  waters  that  are  above  the  firmament ;  the  the  world  with- 
heavens  are  the  stretched  curtains  of  that  tent ;  °"* 
the  winds  are  his  messengers,  and  light  is  but  the  garment  in 
which  he  veils  himself  from  our  gaze.  God  appears  as  the 
Creator  of  this  universe  :  at  a  signal  from  him  the  curtain  of  the 
chaotic  deep  was  withdrawn,  and  the  world  resolved  itself  into 
an  orderly  vicissitude  of  mountain  and  valley  and  stream,  of  fowl 


152  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

singing  among  branches  that  overhang  the  waters  where  wild  asses 
quench  their  thirst,  of  earth  sending  up  grass  for  cattle,  and  bread 
that  gives  man  strength,  and  wine  and  oil  to  gladden  his  spirits. 
The  same  Creator  has  ordained  the  seasons  by  which  his  world 
is  governed,  and  his  sun  makes  the  alternation  between  night  in 
which  the  beasts  roam  after  their  prey,  and  day  when  man  can 
go  forth  to  his  work.  When  the  wonders  of  the  sea  have  been 
added  to  the  wonders  of  land,  all  is  ready  for  the  chmax  thought : 
The  universe  is  one,  and  God  is  its  soul.  All  creatures  wait  upon 
Him. 

Thou  openest  thine  hand, 

They  are  satisfied  with  good; 
Thou  hidest  thy  face, 

They  are  troubled; 
Thou  gatherest  in  their  breath, 

They  die, 

And  return  to  their  dust; 
Thou  sendest  forth  thy  spirit, 

They  are  created, 

And  thou  renewest  the  face  of  the  ground. 

When  God  has  been  thus  exalted  as  supreme  over  the  world  of 
spirit  within  us,  and  the  world  of  the  universe  without,  even  the 
poetry  of  the  Bible  may  be  said  to  have  reached  its  cUmax. 


CHAPTER   VI 

OCCASIONAL    POETRY,    ELEGIES,    AND    LITURGICAL    PSALMS 

The  subject  of  the  present  chapter  covers  something  hke  a 
hundred  different  pieces  of  hterature.  Comment  on  individual 
poems  becomes  impossible  ;  they  can  be  treated  only  in  classes.-^ 

Occasional  Poetry  has  been  illustrated  in  its   most  elaborate 
form  by  the  Song  of  Deborah  and  other  odes.     In 
the  case  of  the  psalms,  to  connect  these  with  the   occasional 

'  '  _  Poetry 

occasions  that  called   them  forth  usually  involves 

historical  discussions  such  as  are  outside  the  scope  of  the  present 

work.     But  there  are  three  psalms  which  few  will 

hesitate  to  attach    to  the  crisis  of  Sennacherib's   Sennacherib's 

invasion 
invasion.     The  marvellous  incident  of  that  critical 

period  is  presented  in  no  obscure  language. 

The  stouthearted  are  spoiled,  they  have  slept  their  sleep;       Psalm  Ixxvi.  5 
And  none  of  the  men  of  might  have  found  their  hands.        and  2  (margin) 
At  thy  rebuke,  O  God  of  Jacob, 
Both  chariot  and  horse  are  cast  into  a  dead  sleep. 

We  see  a  passionate  outburst  of  renewed  love  to  Zion  now  that 
the  oppression  of  the  siege  is  lifted  from  the  people  ;  they  walk 
round  the  city ;    they  count  the  towers  and   bul- 

1  •  r  1,  r  Xlviii.    12,  2 

warks,  as  if  to  make  sure  that  all  are  really  safe. 

They  hail  her  as  beautiful  in  elevation,  joy  of  the  whole  world, 

lair  from  which  the  Lion  of  Judah  darts  upon  his  prey ;  the  river 

1  The  Table  of  Lyric  Poetry  in  Appendix  II  will  give  the  psalms  falling  under 
each  designation. 


154  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

of  peace  holds  her  in  its  arms  unmoved  while  all  around  is  tossing 
in  tumult.  And  the  abrupt  concentration  to  which 
Hebrew  sentences   lend   themselves   presents   the 

whole  crisis  in  the  fewest  possible  words : 

xlvi.  6  The  nations  raged,  the  kingdoms  were  moved: 

He  uttered  his  voice,  the  earth  melted. 

There  is  an  earlier  occasion  in  Hebrew  history  with  which,  as 
I  have  before  remarked,  much  of  Biblical  poetry  connects  itself. 
^.    .  ..      This   is   the   inau2;uration   of  Terasalem   bv  Kins: 

The  mauguration  °  -'  .  & 

of  Jerusalem  David.     It   is   not   difficult   to   read   the   historic 

n  Samuel  vi  account  of  the  day  in  the  Book  o/  Samuel  and  fit 

the  songs  into  their  proper  places. 

And  Da%nd  went  and  brought  up  the  ark  of  God  from  the  house  of 
Obed-Edom  into  the  city  of  David  with  joy.  And  it  was  so,  that 
when  they  that  bare  the  ark  of  the  Lord  had  gone  sLx  paces,  he  sacri- 
ficed an  ox  and  a  fatling.  And  David  danced  before  the  Lord  with 
all  his  might ;  and  Da\'id  was  girded  with  a  linen  ephod.  \_Herc  comes 
Psalm  .r.rj:.]  So  Da\'id  and  all  the  house  of  Israel  brought  up  the  ark 
of  the  Lord  with  shouting,  and  with  the  sound  of  the  trumpet. 
[At  the  foot  of  the  ascent  comes  Psalm  xxiv.  t-6  ;  at  the  top,  the  mili- 
tary piece.  Psalm  xxiv.  j-io.'\  .  .  .  And  they  brought  in  the  ark  of 
the  Lord,  and  set  it  in  its  place,  in  the  midst  of  the  tent  that  David 
had  pitched  for  it :  and  David  offered  burnt  offerings  and  peace  offer- 
ings before  the  Lord.  [Here  comes  Psalm  cxxxii.  i-g.^  ...  So  all 
the  people  departed  every  one  to  his  house.  Then  David  returned  to 
bless  his  household.     [Here  comes  Psalm  ci.'] 

Da\-id  commenced  this  festal  day  with  the  utmost  trepidation, 
on  account  of  the  terrible  death  of  Uzzah,  which  had  interrupted 
his  former  attempt  to  bring  the  ark  to  Jerusalem.  The  first  few 
paces  of  the  present  procession  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
Divine  ban  is  removed ;  there  is  a  halt  and  an  offering  of  thanks- 
giving, and  a  lyric  hymn  of  joy.  The  thirtieth 
psalm,  connected  by  its  traditional  title  with  this 
particular  day,  fits  exactly  into  such  a  situation.  It  breathes  a 
sense  of  escape  from  death  ;  it  tells  how  David  in  his  prosperity 


OCCASIONAL   POETRY  155 

had  felt  himself  a  strong  mountain  that  should  never  be  moved ; 
how  the  Divine  face  was  suddenly  hidden  and  he  was  plunged  in 
trouble  ;  how  he  mourned  and  prayed,  and  now  his  mourning  is 
turned  into  this  dance  of  joy  :  the  weeping  has  but  been  a  guest 
lodging  for  the  night,  but  the  favour  of  God  will  be  a  friend  for  a 
lifetime. 

The  procession  continues,  and  I  have  in  a  former  chapter  ^  dealt 
with  the  anthem  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  the  summons  to  the 
city  to  receive  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  The  city  is  entered,  and  the 
ark  is  brought  into  the  tabernacle  where  it  was  to  remain  for  a 
time.  Here  fresh  sacrifices  are  offered ;  and  there  could  be  no 
more  suitable  anthem  to  accompany  such  sacrifices  than  the  earlier 
part  ^  of  the  hundred  and  thirty-second  psalm.  It  Psaim  cxxxii. 
recites  David's  passionate  vow  to  enjoy  no  rest  ^"^ 
until  he  had  found  a  tabernacle  for  the  Most  High.  The  verses 
that  follow  seem  a  riddle  until  they  are  explained  by  the  search 
for  the  ark  in  its  temporary  resting-places  amid  the  solitude  of 
the  hill  country.     Then  follow  the  ceremonial  words  : 

Arise,  O  Lord,  into  thy  resting  place; 
Thou,  and  the  ark  of  thy  strength. 

The  proceedings  of  the  day  do  not  yet  terminate.  The  people 
are  dismissed,  but  David  returns  "to  bless  his  household."  The 
hundred  and  first  psalm  gives  us  just  the  blessing 
required  :  a  vow  of  mercy  and  judgment  for  the 
speaker  himself,  for  his  household,  and  for  the  administration  of 
his  kingdom.  The  final  line  which  speaks  of  cutting  off  the  work- 
ers of  iniquity  "  from  the  City  of  the  Lord  "  comes  with  new 
force  when  we  recollect  that  it  was  only  on  that  day  that  the  old 
fortress  of  the  Jebusites  and  stronghold  of  evil  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  service  of  another  Deity  and  formally  inaugurated  as 
the  City  of  Jehovah. 

1  Above,  pages  100-104. 

2  Verses  10-18  are  the  addition  made  for  the  Dedication  Festival  of  Solomon's 
Temple. 


156 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 


The  Elegy 


The  natural  history  of  the  Elegy  seems  to  be  as  follows.  It  is 
based  on  the  primitive  Wail  or  Dirge ;  owing  to  the  existence  of 
a  class  of  professional  mourners  this  early  attains 
maturity  as  a  form  of  literature  with  metrical  and 
other  distinctiveness.  Its  characteristics  pass  over  into  other 
forms  of  literature  by  two  different  routes.  On  the  one  hand  the 
metre  of  the  Elegy,  being  amongst  early  forms  one  of  the  most 
perfect  for  expressing  strong  emotion,  comes  in  time  to  be  used 
for  emotional  strains  that  ^e  not  mournful ;  thus  the  student  of 
Classical  literature  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  the  '  elegiac 
metre '  is  regularly  used  for  love  poems,  and  can  even  travel  so 
far  from  its  original  conception  as  to  express  encomium.  Again, 
we  are  able  in  Hebrew  prophecy  to  see  how  the  form  of  the 
Elegy  is  used  irojiically  in  the  '  taunt-songs.'  It  appears  then 
that  evolutionary  considerations  warrant  us  in  classing  together 
three  literary  forms  so  different  as  the  Elegy,  the  Denunciation, 
and  the  Encomium. 


Elegy  (proper) 


Encomium 


Denunciation 


There  is  a  curious   parallelism   between  the  Hebrew  rhythm 

of  elegy  and  that  of  Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  which  is  composed 

of  the  ordinary  hexameter   followed  by  the  shorter  pentameter. 

In  Hebrew  the  elegiac  rhythm  is  the  ordinary  couplet  with  the 

second  member  weakened,  by  being  either  short- 

egiacr  y  ^xvt^  OX  left  destitute  of  antithesis  or  parallelism,  so 

much  so  that  the  two  are  usually  printed  as  a  single  line  with  a 
caesura. 

He  hath  fenced  me  about  that  I  cannot  go  forth;    he  hath  made  my  chain 
heavy. 


ELEGIAC  POETRY  157 

The  difference  of  this  from  the  ordinary  rhythm  is  well  seen  in 
the  transition  from  one  to  the  other  already  cited  as  an  effect  in 
Deborah's  Song. 

In  the  days  of  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath, 

In  the  days  of  Jael, 
The  highways  were  unoccupied, 

And  the  travellers  walked  through  byways; 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel, 

They  ceased  — 
Until  that  I,  Deborah,  arose, 
That  I  arose  a  mother  in  Israel. 
They  chose  new  gods; 
Then  was  war  in  the  gates  : 
Was  there  a  shield  or  spear  seen 
Among  forty  thousand  in  Israel? 

But  the  widespread  use  of  this  elegiac  rhythm  in  Biblical  literature 
is  lost  to  the  English  reader,  since  none  of  the  accepted  versions 
keep  it  up  in  their  translation.^    The  loss  is  greatest 
in  the  elaborate  elegy  entitled  the  Lamentations  of  jeremiah 
yereiniah,  which  is  a  highly  artificial  composition 
built  up  on  the  principle  of  elegiac  rhythm  and  a  curious  alpha- 
betical succession  of  verses.     The  great  blot  upon  the   Revised 
Version  of  our  Bible  is  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  represent 
the    acrostic    structure   which    affects    these    as    so    many   other 
Hebrew  poems.    The  pathos  of  individual  passages  in  the  Lam- 
entations is  obvious  enough ;  but  the  literary  form  of  the  whole 
must  be  given  up  for  the  present  as  inaccessible  to  the  English 
reader.^ 

There  are  elegies  amongst  the  most  familiar  poems  of  the 
psalter.     One  is  the  song  of  the  captives  weeping  by  the  rivers  of 

1  For  a  systematic  treatment  of  the  whole  subject,  see  an  article  by  Karl  Budde 
in  the  New  Revietv,  March,  1893. 

2  In  The  Psalms  by  Four  Friends,  or  the  abridged  edition  of  it  as  the  Psalter  in 
the  Golden  Treasury  Series  (Macmillan  &  Co.),  the  acrostic  effect  is  maintained 
throughout;  and  the  Book  of  Lamentations  is  given  in  full  (in  the  second  edition  of 
the  larger  work). 


158  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Babylon,  hanging  their  harps  upon  the  willows  at  the  thought 
of  singing  the  songs  of  Zion  in  a  strange  land  : 
until  the  wail  hardens  into  an  ecstasy  of  hatred  as 

they  long  for  one  who  will  take  the  little  ones  of  the  oppressor 

and  dash  them  against  the  ground.  Another  tells 
Psalm  Ixxiv  .  °  ° 

the  evil  done  to  the  sanctuary  by  the  enemy,  how 

they  behaved  as  men  that  lifted  up  axes  upon  a  thicket  of  trees, 
how  the  carved  work  is  broken  down  with  hatchet  and  hammers, 
and  fire  has  converted  the  sacred  pile  into  a  profane  ruin.  An- 
other is  made  distinctive  by  the  sustained  imase  of 
Psalm  Ixxx  ° 

the  Vine  brought  out  of  Egypt,  with  nations  cast 

out  to  make  room  for  it ;  it  had  taken  deep  root  until  mountains 
were  covered  by  its  shadow  and  its  branches  reached  to  the 
River  and  the  Sea ;  but  now  its  fences  are  thrown  down,  and  the 
beasts  out  of  the  wood  can  ravage  it,  nay,  it  is  cut  down  and 
burned  with  fire.  And  no  Biblical  elegy  is  more  impressive  than 
the  earliest  of  them  all,  the  lamentation  of  David 
J  ■  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  preserved  by  its  connec- 

tion with  archery  meetings  founded  in  honour  of 
Jonathan.  The  simple  pathos  of  this  song  is  familiar  to  all.  It  is 
worth  while  also  to  note  the  structural  beauty  of  the  augmenting 
refrain  :  at  the  opening  of  the  elegy  it  is.  How  are  the  mighty 
fallen;  when  the  stanzas  special  to  Saul  are  completed  it  has  be- 
come, How  are  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle ;  at  the 
end  of  the  final  section  expressing  the  poet's  tender  love  for 
Jonathan  the  refrain  has  grown  to  a  full  couplet  — 

How  are  the  mighty  fallen, 

And  the  weapons  of  war  perished! 

These  are  Elegies  proper ;  but  Elegies  of  Denunciation  have 
a  prominent  place  in  the  psalter.  Indeed,  the  imprecatory  pas- 
Elegies  of  De-  sages  that  occur  in  several  of  the  psalms  are  a 
nunciation  difficulty  with   many   readers,  who   feel   that  such 

violence  of  passion  is  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  psalter 
as  a  whole. 


ELEGIAC  POETRY  159 

Let  them  be  as  chaff  before  the  wind,  Psalm  xxxv.  5 

And  the  angel  of  the  Lord  driving  them  on. 

Let  their  way  be  dark  and  slippery, 

And  the  angel  of  the  Lord  pursuing  them. 

But  for  this,  and  for  the  much  more  extended  imprecation  of  the 
hundred  and  ninth  psahn,  an  important  principle  of  interpreta- 
tion is  found  in  the  different  attitude  of  ancient  and  modern  liter- 
ature to  abstract  and  concrete.  We  in  modern  times  are  quite 
accustomed  to  feel  enthusiasm  for  the  abstract  thing  we  call  '  a 
cause ' ;  with  the  ancient  world  it  was  necessary  for  the  cause  to 
be  embodied  in  a  concrete  party,  if  it  was  to  win  devotion  or  the 
reverse.  Though  this  principle  has  less  application  in  Biblical 
than  in  other  literatures  of  antiquity,  yet  it  obtains  there  to  some 
extent.  When  the  psalmist's  hatred  of  evil  men  has  once  been 
translated  into  the  form  of  hatred  against  evil,  it  will  be  felt  that 
the  passages  cannot  be  too  strongly  worded. 

The  class  of  lyrical  Encomia  can  be  well  illustrated  by  the  Sal- 
utation to  Zion,  which  constitutes  the  eighty-seventh 

,  „,     .  ,  .  .        ,  „.  Encomia 

psalm.     Glorious  thmgs,  cries  the  poet  to  Zion,  are  Psaimixxxvii 

spoken  of  thee  :  and  in  the  fourth  verse  presents 
Zion  as  speaking  for  herself. 

"  I  will  make  mention  of  Rahab  and  Babylon 
As  among  them  that  know  me : 
Behold  Philistia,  and  Tyre,  with  Ethiopia; 
This  one  was  born  there." 

And  the  poet  adds  his  testimony  :  yea,  it  shall  be  said  of  Zion 
that  this  and  that  great  nation  owns  her  for  a  mother ;  not  of 
course  by  natural  descent,  but  in  the  Lord's  spiritual  register  they 
shall  be  inscribed  as  daughters  of  Zion.  And  the  final  verse,  in 
the  spirit  of  the  sixty-eighth  psalm,  pictures  the  procession  of  the 
nations,  proclaiming  with  minstrelsy  and  dance  that  they  draw 
their  springs  from  Mount  Zion.  The  psalm  has  been  well  summed 
up  by  Professor  Cheyne  as  "  tjie  Church  of  Israel  expanding  into 
the  Church  Universal." 


160  LYRIC  POETRY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

A  large  proportion  of  the  psalter  is  made  by  the  Liturgical 
Psalms,  which  are  clearly  designed  for  public  worship.  In  literary 
Liturgical  characteristics  they  may  be  regarded  as  the  con- 

Psaims  verse  of  the  species  with  which  this  chapter  opened  : 

occasional  poetry  has  matter  already  provided  for  it,  and  the  mat- 
ter begets  the  emotion ;  in  the  other  case  the  set  emotion  is  taken 
for  granted  and  looks  for  matter  to  sustain  it.  The  Liturgical 
Varieties  of  Psalms    are    mainly  hymns  of  praise  :    the  varied 

Liturgical  forms   assumed  by    such    hymns  the    reader   may 

Psalms  study  from  the  Table  in  the  Appendix.     The  stu- 

dent of  literature  can  only  marvel  at  their  richness  and  the  height 
at  which  their  exultation  is  sustained.  One  variety  may  be  called 
Hallelujahs  :  these  (in  typical  cases)  have  the  ejaculation  from 
which  they  are  named  at  the  opening  and  close,  while  all  that 
comes  between  is  maintained  at  the  same  high  pitch.  Scarcely 
different  from  these  are  what  have  been  called  Accession  Hymns  : 
here  th?  exclamation,  "The  Lord  reigneth,"  is  the  keynote  of  the 
whole.  I  apply  the  terra  Festal  Hymns  to  psalms  which  breathe 
the  general  spirit  of  a  high  feast  day,  though  they  may  not  fit 
themselves  to  any  particular  ceremonial.  In  Votive  Hymns  an 
individual  comes  to  mingle  his  vow  with  the  general  thanksgiving ; 
even  the  Songs  of  Hannah  and  of  Mary,  however  personal  the 
strain  with  which  they  start,  yet  before  the  end  seem  to  merge 
this  in  praise  that  is  of  universal  application.  To  all  these  must 
be  added  the  Benedictions,  such  as  the  people  bestow  upon  their 
king,  or  the  poet  upon  the  bridegroom  and  bride  of  some  royal 
wedding  ;  these  are  clearly  distinguished  from  the  encomia  men- 
tioned above  by  the  tone  of  ritual  worship  that  runs  through  them. 

Most  of  these  liturgical  psalms  are  characterised  by  a  simplicity 
Their  literary  that  is  beyond  analysis.  The  spirit  of  praise  once 
characteristics  aroused  is  kept  alive  by  reiteration,  or  by  enumera- 
tion of  details. 

cxlviii.  7  Praise  the  Lord  from  the  earth, 

Ye  dragons,  and  all  deeps : 
Fire  and  hail,  snow  and  vapour; 


LITURGICAL  PSALMS  161 

Stormy  wind,  fultilling  his  word: 

Mountains  and  all  hills; 

Fruitful  trees  and  all  cedars; 

Beasts  and  all  cattle; 

Creeping  things  and  flying  fowl : 

Kings  of  the  earth  and  all  peoples; 

Princes  and  all  judges  of  the  earth : 

Both  young  men  and  maidens; 

Old  men  and  children  : 

Let  them  praise  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

Sometimes  the  reiteration  takes  a  more  fanciful  form.  Not  to 
speak  of  the  acrostic  structure,  which  obtains  here  as  in  so  many- 
other  departments  of  Hebrew  poetry,  we  find  a  beautiful  bit  of 
imitative  sound  in  the  ninety-third  psalm. 

The  floods  have  lifted  up,  O  Lord, 
The  floods  have  lifted  up  their  voice; 

The  floods  lift  up  their  roaring: 
Above  the  voices  of  many  waters. 
The  mighty  breakers  of  the  sea, 

The  Lord  on  high  is  mighty. 

Poetic  imagery  is  found  here  as  everywhere  in  Biblical  poetry; 
especially  the  favourite  Hebrew  image  of  external  nature  in  excite- 
ment :  the  sea  roars,  the  field  leaps,  the  trees  of  the  wood  sing  for 
joy,  as  Jehovah  comes  to  judgment. 

But  these  ritual  psalms   reach   their   most  characteristic   form 
when  they  are  antiphonal  in  structure.     Antiphonal  performance 
may  be  assumed  in  the  case  of  all ;  but  there  are   -^^xmzX  psalms 
some  cases  in  which  the  whole  form  and  succession   with  antiphonal 
of  thought  imply  a  designation  for  more  than  one   ^  ^^  ^^^ 
set  of  performers.     I  will  take  a  fully  developed  type  in  the  hun- 
dred and  eighteenth  psalm.     The  reader  will  appreciate  the  illus- 
tration the  better  if  he  first  reads  the   hundred   and   sixteenth 
psalm.     The  two  poems  are  almost  identical  in  thought  and  situ- 
ation ;  in  each  case  an  individual  is  returning  thanks  for  deliver- 
ance apparently  from  sickness.     But  in  one  case  there  is  nothing 


162 


LYRIC  POETRY    OF  THE  BIBLE 


to  break  the  flow  of  individual  speech ;  in  the  other  psahn  the 
sequence  of  verses  clearly  suggests  a  solo  and  two  distinct 
choruses.  At  the  beginning  the  Worshipper  is  approaching  the 
Temple  with  an  Escort  of  Friends ;  later  on  a  second  Chorus  of 
Priests  must  be  added. 


PSALM   CXVIII 

The    Worshipper  and  his  Escort  approach  the   Teinple. 

Tutti.  O  give  thanks  unto  the  LORD;   for  he  is  good  : 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 
Let  Israel  now  say  — 
That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 
Let  the  house  of  Aaron  now  say  — 
That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 
Let  them  now  that  fear  the  Lord  say  — 
That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 


Worshipper. 
Escort. 
Worshipper. 
Escort. 
Worshipper. 
Escort. 

Worshipper. 


Escort. 


Worshipper. 
Escort. 

Worshipper. 

Escort. 
Worshipper. 

Escort. 


Out  of  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  Lord  : 

The  Lord  answered  me,  and  set  me  in  a  large  place. 

The  Lord  is  on  my  side;   I  will  not  fear : 

What  can  man  do  unto  me? 

The  Lord  is  on  my  side  among  them  that  help  me : 

Therefore  shall  I  see  my  desire  upon  them  that  hate  me. 

It  is  better  to  trust  in  the  Lord 
Than  to  put  confidence  in  man; 
It  is  better  to  trust  in  the  Lord 
Than  to  put  confidence  in  princes. 

All  nations  compassed  me  about : 

In  the  name  of  the  Lord  I  will  cut  them  off! 

They  compassed  me  about; 

Yea,  they  compassed  me  about : 

In  the  name  of  the  Lord  I  will  cut  them  off! 

They  compassed  me  about  like  bees; 

They  are  quenched  as  the  fire  of  thorns : 

In  the  name  of  the  Lord  I  will  cut  them  off! 


Worshipper.     Thou  didst  thrust  sore  at  me  that  I  might  fall: 
But  the  Lord  helped  me. 


LITURGICAL   PSALMS 


163 


The  Lord  is  my  strength  and  song; 

And  he  is  become  my  salvation. 

The  voice  of  rejoicing  and  salvation   is  in    the   tents  of  the 
righteous : 

The  right  hand  of  the  Lord  doeth  valiantly. 
Escort.  The  right  hand  of  the  Lord  is  exalted : 

The  right  hand  of  the  Lord  doeth  valiantly. 
Worshipper,     I  shall  not  die,  but  live, 

And  declare  the  works  of  the  Lord. 

The  Lord  hath  chastened  me  sore : 

But  he  hath  not  given  me  over  unto  death. 

Open  to  me  the  gates  of  righteousness : 

I  will  enter  into  them, 

I  will  "ive  thanks  unto  the  LoRD. 


The  Tetnple  gates  open  and  disclose  a  Chorus  of  Priests. 

Priests.  This  is  the  Gate  of  the  Lord  : 

The  righteous  shall  enter  into  it. 

Worshipper.     I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee,  for  thou  hast  answered  me. 

And  art  become  my  salvation. 

The  stone  which  the  builders  rejected 

Is  become  the  head  of  the  corner. 
Escort.  This  is  the  Lord's  doing; 

It  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes. 

This  is  the  day  which  the  Lord  hath  made; 

We  will  rejoice  and  be  glad  in  it. 

Save  now,  we  beseech  thee,  O  Lord  : 

O  Lord,  we  beseech  thee,  send  now  prosperity. 

The  Worshipper  enters  the  Temple  :  the  Escort  prepare  to  retire. 
Priests  {to  the  Worshipper^. 

Blessed  be  he  that  entereth  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  ! 
{to  the  Escort.,  retiring) . 

We  have  blessed  you  out  of  the  house  of  the  Lord  ! 

Priests.  The  Lord  is  God,  and  he  hath  given  us  light: 

Bind  the  sacrifice  with  cords,  even  unto  the  horns  of  the  altar. 

Worshipper.     Thou  art  my  God,  and  I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee: 
Thou  art  my  God,  I  will  exalt  thee. 

Tutti.  O  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord;   for  he  is  good  : 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 


164  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

So  far  the  liturgical  psalms  we  have  reviewed  have  been  com- 
posed wholly  in  one  tone,  that  of  praise.     But  it  belongs  to  Liturgy, 

that  is,  to  Divine  Service,  to  unite  many  moods  of 
of  aHCTeeation)      ^^^  '^^^  "^  °^^  exercise,  to  mingle  penitence  with 

praise,  confession  of  faith  with  supplication.  There 
are  certain  psalms  which  seem  to  show  a  similar  mingling  of 
moods,  —  psalms  which  a  close  analysis  will  separate  altogether 
from  the  personal  monologues  filled  with  variations  of  individual 
experience,  and  which  must  be  classified  with  the  poetry  of  public 
worship.  The  explanation  is  that  in  such  cases  we  have  a  com- 
plete liturgy  within  the  limits  of  a  single  psalm. 

The  characteristics  I  am  describing  distinguish  one  of  the  most 
impressive  psalms  in  the  whole  Bible ;  and  the  discussion  of  this 
psalm  illustrates  the  important  bearing  of  such  considerations  upon 
interpretation.  The  sixty-fifth  psalm  will  be  pronounced  by  one 
commentator  a  harvest  thanksgiving ;  another  will  see  in  it  praise 
for  forgiveness  of  national  sin.  But  such  explanations  are  incom- 
plete, and  leave  great  part  of  the  poem  without  significance.  Nor 
is  the  matter  much  mended  when  the  two  theories  are  combined. 
All  such  interpretation  assumes  for  the  psalm  a  type  of  unity  which 
it  does  not  contain.     In  discussing  the  higher  unity  I  mentioned, 

among  other  types,  the  unity  of  aggregation.  The 
a  Liturgy  of  sixty-fifth  psalm  is  bound  together  by  this  bond  ; 

^■"^'^^  not  that  we  have  in  it  the  aggregation  of  different 

compositions,  such  as  we  saw  in  the  selections  from  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  ;  but  the  parts  of  this  psalm  bring  up  in  succession  differ- 
ent moods  of  the  soul,  disconnected  from  one  another,  yet  mingling 
as  they  do  mingle  in  any  elaborate  act  of  worship. 

PSALM   LXV 

thanksgiving  Praise  waiteth  for  thee,  O  God,  in  Zion : 

And  unto  thee  shall  the  vow  be  performed. 
* 

prayer  O  thou  that  hearest  prayer, 

Unto  thee  shall  all  flesh  come. 


LITURGICAL  PSALMS  165 

Iniquities  prevail  against  me  :  penitence 

As  for  our  transgressions,  thou  shalt  purge  them  away. 

* 

Blessed  is  the  man  whom  thou  choosest,  devotion 

And  causest  to  approach  unto  thee, 

That  he  may  dwell  in  thy  courts : 
We  shall  be  satisfied  with  the  goodness  of  thy  house, 
The  holy  place  of  thy  temple. 

By  terrible  things  thou  wilt  answer  us  in  righteousness,  judgment 

O  God  of  our  salvation : 

Thou  that  art  the  confidence  of  all  the  ends  of  the  earth, 

And  of  them  that  are  afar  off  upon  the  sea : 
Which  by  his  strength  setteth  fast  the  mountains; 

Being  girded  about  with  might : 
Which  stilleth  the  roaring  of  the  seas. 

The  roaring  of  their  waves. 

And  the  tumult  of  the  peoples.  ai 

They  also  that  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  are  afraid  at  thy  tokens : 
Thou  makest  the  outgoings  of  the  morning  and  evening  to  rejoice. 

* 

Thou  visitest  the  earth,  and  waterest  it :  adoration 

Thou  greatly  enrichest  it, 

The  river  of  God  is  full  of  water : 
Thou  providest  them  corn,  when  thou  hast  so  prepared  the  earth; 
Thou  waterest  her  furrows  abundantly. 
Thou  settlest  the  ridges  thereof. 
Thou  makest  it  soft  with  showers. 
Thou  blessest  the  springing  thereof, 
Thou  crownest  the  year  with  thy  goodness : 

And  thy  paths  drop  fatness, 

They  drop  upon  the  pastures  of  the  wilderness, 

And  the  hills  are  girded  with  joy. 

The  pastures  are  clothed  with  flocks : 
The  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn : 
They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing. 

When,  without  any  preconceived  idea  of  unity,  the  psalm  is 
examined  with  a  view  to  tracing  the  actual  connection  of  its 
different  parts,  it  is  thus  found  to  bring  before  us  in  succession  all 


166  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  elements  of  public  worship.  One  verse  is  an  ejaculation  of 
thanksgiving,  the  next  a  simple  prayer,  the  next  a  simple  expres- 
sion of  penitence.  Then  follow  words  of  devotion,  describing  the 
devout  life  by  the  image  so  regularly  used  for  it  in  the  psalms  — 
the  dwelling  in  God's  house.  Another  theme  of  worship  then 
finds  elaborate  expression;  that  which  in  modern  phraseology 
would  be  called  God's  Providence,  while  the  Hebrew  worshipper 
would  describe  it  as  Judgment,  or  "  the  answer  in  righteousness." 
And  the  whole  terminates  with  adoration  to  the  God  of  Nature. 
This  last  outburst  does  not  simply  touch  the  harvest,  but  passes 
to  and  fro  between  agricultural  and  pastoral  scenery :  between  the 
changing  year  of  agriculture  —  from  the  first  ploughing  to  the 
crowning  harvest  —  and  the  dropping  of  'God's  paths,'  the  rain- 
clouds,  upon  the  pasture  lands,  until  both  sides  of  external  nature 
are  united  in  a  shout  and  hymn  of  joy. 
« 

The  hills  are  girded  with  joy, 

The  pastures  are  clothed  with  flocks; 

The  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn; 

They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing. 

The  different  sections  of  the  psalm  have  no  connection  one  with 
the  other,  but  they  are  all  parts  of  a  whole,  just  as  entirely  sepa- 
rate sentences  of  confession,  of  praise,  of  supplication,  are  in  our 
modern  liturgies  bound  together  into  a  single  office  for  matins  or 
evensong. 

All  liturgy  resolves  itself  into  three  parts  :  acts  of  praise  and 
thanksgiving,  acts  of  prayer  —  the  term  being  used  to  cover  both 

supplication  and  devotion  —  and  acts  of  faith.  The 
modem  liturgies    ^^^^  ^^^'^  ''^'^^  "^  difficulty  ;  the  language  of  praise 

and  prayer  is  the  same  in  all  ages.  But  when  we 
come  to  acts  of  faith,  these  in  modern  liturgies  differ  so  widely 
from^heir  counterparts  in  the  psalter  that  it  requires  an  effort  to 
recognise  the  analogy  of  the  two.  In  the  liturgies  familiar  to  the 
modern  reader  the  main  acts  of  faith  are  the  '  Creeds,'  which  are 
formal  statements  of  theological  truth.     It  is  true  that  the  rubric 


LITURGICAL   PSALMS  167 

of  a  creed  may  direct  that  it  shall  be  '  sung,'  and,  as  a  matter  of 
liturgiological  theory,  the  Creed  is  regarded  as  the  Church's  joyous 
celebration  of  its  belief.  But  when  the  creeds  of  modern  liturgies 
are  examined  as  pieces  of  literature  it  must  be  admitted  that  their 
formal  clauses,  their  technical  phraseology,  and  their  design  in 
some  cases  to  settle  controversies,  remove  them  to  a  wide  distance 
from  lyric  poetry.  In  the  worship  of  the  psalter,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  have  to  deal  with  a  people  whose  creed  was  a  creed  of  a 
single  article,  and  that  article  might  be  summed  up  in  the  single 
word  'Judgment.'  This  expressive  word  in  the  mouth  of  a  Hebrew 
poet  implies  an  absolute  belief  in  the  supremacy  of  God,  and,  as 
a  consequence  from  this,  in  the  vindication  of  good  against  evil. 
To  declare  such  belief,  to  call  for  judgment,  to  passionately  identify 
himself  with  such  vindication  of  the  cause  of  good,  —  this  makes 
the  act  of  faith  which  the  worshipper  of  the  Biblical  psalter  is 
continually  mingling  with  his  prayer  and  praise. 

These   lyrical   creeds   in   the    psalms   will    be    found    to   take 

very  different  forms.     Sometimes  such  an  act  of 
r  •  1    •  ,     J    •      .1  -1  1,1  Lyrical  creeds 

faith  IS  couched  in  the  simplest  parallel  or  anti- 
thetic sentences  : 

The  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  toward  the  righteous,  xxxiv.  15 

And  his  ears  are  open  unto  their  cry. 

The  face  of  the  Lord  is  against  them  that  do  evil, 

To  cut  off  the  remembrance  of  them  from  the  earth.  •  • 

Or  it  may  take  a  gnomic  form  : 

God  hath  spoken  once,  Ixii.  11 

Twice  have  I  heard  this ; 

That  power  belongeth  unto  God : 

Also  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  belongeth  mercy : 

For  thou  renderest  to  every  man  according  to  his  work. 

Or  it  may  be  argumentative  : 

He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not  hear?  xciv.  9 

He  that  formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see? 

He  that  instructeth  the  nations,  shall  he  not  correct? 


168  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  appeal  to  God's  judgment  may  take  the  shape  of  a  chal- 
lenge. 

iv.  2     O  ye  sons  of  men,  how  long  shall  my  glory  be  turned  into  dishonour? 
How  long  will  ye  love  vanity,  and  seek  after  falsehood? 
But  know  that  the  Lord  hath  set  apart  him  that  is  godly  for  himself: 
The  Lord  will  hear  when  I  call  unto  him. 

Even  a  personal  vindication,  like  Job's  oath  of  clearing,  or  the 
precisely  similar  passage  in  the  seventh  psalm,  may  be  classed  as 
an  act  of  faith,  for  it  amounts  to  taking  sides  in  the  struggle  of 
Good  and  Evil. 

vii.  3  O  Lord  my  God,  if  I  have  done  this  ; 

If  there  be  iniquity  in  my  hands  ; 

If  I  have  rewarded  evil  unto  him  that  was  at  peace  with  me; 
Yea,  I  have  delivered  him  that  without  cause  was  mine  adversary : 
Let  the  enemy  pursue  my  soul,  and  overtake  it ; 
Yea,  let  him  tread  my  life  down  to  the  earth. 
And  lay  my  glory  in  the  dust ! 

Such  are  the  lyrical  confessions  of  faith  which  mingle  with  sup- 
plication and  adoration,  with  thanksgiving,  penitence  for  sin,  and 
yearnings  after  the  devout  life,  to  make  the  liturgies  of  the 
psalter.  With  just  those  transitions  which  the  instinct  of  modern 
devotion  would  express  by  changes  of  posture,  —  from  standing 
to  kneeling,  and  the  like,  —  these  poems  of  worship  break  a  long 
prayep  by  a  short  ascription  of  praise,  or  pass  from  penitence  to 
general  prayer  through  a  brief  recital  of  confidence  in  God's 
justice.  We  have  seen  at  full  length  a  psalm  which  in  the  main 
is  a  song  of  faith  and  adoration,  but  which  leads  up  to  these  by 
briefer  representation  of  the  other  elements  of  worship.  It  may 
be  well  to  take  another  example.  The  eighty-sixth  psalm,  viewed 
as  a  whole,  is  a  litany  or  supplication;  but  the 
Su^'*Hcafion  prayer  with  which   it  opens  and  closes  is  inter- 

rupted in  the  middle  by  a  declaration  of  the 
Divine  supremacy,  and  also  by  a  personal  thanksgiving,  and  these 
two  interruptions  are  themselves  separated  by  a  brief  ejaculation 
of  devotion. 


LITURGICAL  PSALMS  169 


PSALM    LXXXVI 

Bow  down  thine  ear,  O  Lord,  supplication 

And  answer  me  ; 

For  I  am  poor  and  needy. 
Preserve  my  soul, 

For  I  am  godly : 

O  thou  my  God, 
Save  thy  servant  that  trusteth  in  thee. 

Be  merciful  unto  me,  O  Lord; 

For  unto  thee  do  I  cry  all  the  day  long : 
Rejoice  the  soul  of  thy  servant; 

For  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  do  I  lift  up  my  soul. 
For  thou.  Lord,  art  good. 

And  ready  to  forgive, 
And  plenteous  in  mercy  unto  all  them  that  call  upon  thee. 

Give  ear,  O  Lord,  unto  my  prayer; 

And  hearken  unto  the  voice  of  my  supplications: 
In  the  day  of  my  trouble  I  will  call  upon  thee, 

For  thou  wilt  answer  me. 


There  is  none  like  unto  thee  among  the  gods,  O  Lord;  faith 

Neither  are  there  any  works  like  unto  thy  works. 
All  nations  whom  thou  hast  made 

Shall  come  and  worship  before  thee,  O  Lord; 

And  they  shall  glorify  thy  name. 

For  thou  art  great,  and  doest  wondrous  things  : 

Thou  art  God  alone. 

* 

Teach  me  thy  way,  O  Lord  ;   I  will  walk  in  thy  truth  :  devotion 

Unite  my  heart  to  fear  thy  name. 

* 

I  will  praise  thee,  O  Lord  my  God,  with  my  whole  heart;       thanks- 
And  I  will  glorify  thy  name  for  evermore.  giving 

For  great  is  thy  mercy  toward  me; 
And  thou  hast  delivered  my  soul  from  the  lowest  pit. 


170  LYRIC  POEJ'RY   OF   THE   BIBLE 

supplication        O  God,  the  proud  are  risen  up  against  me, 
And  the  congregation  of  violent  men 

Have  sought  after  my  soul, 

And  have  not  set  thee  before' them. 
But  thou,  O  LoKD,  art  a  God  full  of  compassion, 

And  gracious. 

Slow  to  anger, 
And  plenteous  in  mercy  and  truth. 
O  turn  unto  me,  and  have  mercy  upon  me; 

Give  thy  strength  unto  thy  servant. 

And  save  the  son  of  thine  handmaid. 
Show  me  a  token  for  good; 

That  they  which  hate  me  may  see  it. 

And  be  ashamed. 
Because  thou,  Lord,  hast  holpen  me,  and  comforted  me. 

Before  passing  away  from  the  subject  of  this  chapter  it  is  neces- 
The  Songs  of  As-  ^^^^  *-°  "^^ice  a  portion  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  which 
cents:  Psalms  is  occupied,  not  with  single  compositions,  but  with 
cxx-cxxxiv  ^  collection  of  similar  poems,  a  psalter  within  a 

psalter.  Fifteen  psalms  in  succession  have  the  common  title, 
*  Songs  of  Ascents  ' ;  the  Authorised  Version  renders  it  *  Songs 
of  Degrees,'  a  translation  of  the  word  in  the  Vulgate  which  has 
by  others  been  rendered  '  Gradual  Psalms.'  ^  The  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  expression  is  '  Songs  of  the  goings  up.'  What  is  the 
significance  of  this  enigmatic  phrase  ?  Two  theories  on  this  point 
are  worthy  of  special  consideration.  One  is  conveyed  by  giving 
the  poems  the  title  of  '  Pilgrim  Songs  ' ;  that  is,  songs  of  the  Pil- 
grims going  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  great  feasts.  The  other  con- 
nects them  with  the  Return  of  the  Captives  from  Babylon  to 
Jerusalem. 

The  difficulty  of  the  question  is  much  reduced  when  we  recol- 
lect that  the  title,  whatever  its  meaning  may  be,  expresses  the 
purpose  of  the  collection,  not  of  the  composition  of  any  particular 
psalm.     If  we  think  of  our  modern  hymn-books,  we  shall  see  that 

1  Armfield's  Gradual  Psalms  (Hayes)  contains  an  interesting  theory  of  the  title, 
connecting  it  on  the  authority  of  the  Talmud  with  the  part  of  the  Temple  in  which 
these  psalms  would  be  performed. 


LITURGICAL   PSALMS  171 

a  phrase  may  be  apposite  as  a  title  for  the  whole  book,  and  yet 
might  have  little  significance  if  apphed  to  the  interpretation  of 
single  hymns  in  the  collection.  Keeping  this  consideration  before 
us,  we  may  find  it  not  difficult  to  combine  the  two  theories  men- 
tioned above. 

Some  of  these  Songs  of  Ascents  associate  themselves  readily 
with  the  Captivity  and  Return.  The  singer  of  the  one  hundred 
and  twentieth  psalm  speaks  from  amidst  an  atmosphere  of  turbu- 
lence and  treachery,  and  describes  himself,  either  really  or  figura- 
tively, as  living  in  the  distant  regions  of  Meshech  and  Kedar. 
Psalm  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  seems  to  take  local  colour 
from  some  oriental  empire  :  as  the  eyes  of  slaves  follow  their 
masters  to  anticipate  every  wish,  so  the  poet  would  be  observant 
of  his  God.  The  poem  that  follows  presents  Israel  as  just  escaped 
like  a  bird  out  of  the  snare  of  the  fowler :  if  Jehovah  had  not 
been  on  his  side  the  foe  would  have  swallowed  him  up.  The 
hundred  and  twenty-sixth  psalm  is  peculiar.  It  opens 
with  the  words  : 

When  the  Lord  turned  again  the  captivity  of  Zion, 
We  were  like  unto  them  that  dream. 

And  yet  at  the  fourth  verse  comes  the  prayer  : 

Turn  again  our  captivity,  O  Lord, 

As  the  streams  in  the  South. 

They  that  sow  in  tears  shall  reap  in  joy. 

The  simplest  explanation  of  this  is  to  connect  it  with  the  Return 
from  Babylon.  That  return  took  place  in  many  instalments,  sep- 
arated by  long  intervals.  This  psalm  would  seem  to  be  a  hymn 
of  those  remaining  in  exile  when  the  first  migration  had  started  : 
they  exult  in  the  change  of  fortune  which  has  at  last  visited  their 
nation,  and  they  long  for  their  own  share  in  the  happy  deliver- 
ance ;  meanwhile  they  give  themselves  up  to  patience  and  hope. 
The  period  of  the  Exile  fits  well  with  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
ninth  psalm,  which  presents  Israel  as  a  martyr,  and  cries  execration 


172  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

upon  those  that  hate  Zion.  And  while  the  De  profundis  of  the 
following  psalm  gives  expression  to  national  penitence  in  any  age, 
yet  it  could  at  no  time  be  so  appropriate  as  during  the  Captivity. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  hundred  and  twenty-first  psalm,  of  which 
the  keynote  is  "  The  Lord  thy  keeper,"  seems  a  most  appropriate 
marching  hymn  for  the  companies  of  pilgrims  journeying  to  the 
yearly  feasts ;  and  its  opening  words,  "  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes 
unto  the  hills,"  might  connect  it  with  the  first  sight  of  the  environs 
of  the  sacred  city.  The  psalm  that  follows  would  just  fit  in  with 
the  next  stage :  "  Our  feet  are  standing  within  thy  gates,  O 
Jerusalem."  The  hundred  and  twenty-fifth  psalm  is  made  up 
of  thoughts  suggested  by  the  sight  of  the  Holy  City  :  the  massive 
Mount  Zion  is  a  symbol  of  the  security  of  those  who  trust  in  its 
God  ;  the  mountains  enclosing  Jerusalem  are  like  the  Lord's  pro- 
tection thrown  around  his  people  ;  the  territory  so  safely  walled 
in  is  a  pledge  that  the  empire  of  evil  shall  not  invade  the  lot  of 
the  righteous.  Moreover,  these  companies  of  pilgrims  were  family 
parties,  as  an  incident  of  the  New  Testament  reminds  us  :  hence 
the  hundred  and  twenty-seventh  psalm  (cited  elsewhere  ^ )  con- 
trasting the  life  of  busy  care  with  the  peaceful  family  life,  or  the 
next,  which  associates  family  joys  with  the  blessing  out  of  Zion, 
or  the  hundred  and  thirty-first,  which  draws  from  child  life  a  con- 
ception of  personal  and  national  humble-mindedness,  or  again  the 
hundred  and  thirty-third,  which  celebrates  the  unity  of  brethren. 
The  two  poems  of  the  collection  that  have  yet  to  be  mentioned 
connect  themselves  directly  with  the  Temple  :  one  (the  hundred 
and  thirty-second)  is  the  Dedication  hymn  of  David  and  Solomon, 
and  the  other  makes  an  appropriate  close  to  the  collection  in  the 
form  of  a  brief  exchange  of  greetings  between  the  retiring  worship- 
pers and  the  Night  Watch  remaining  on  guard. 

The  psalms,  individually  considered,  then,  suggest  a  twofold 
origin  ;  the  combination  of  both  types  in  a  common  collection  is 
not  difficult  to  understand.  Either  the  '  Songs  of  the  goings  up  ' 
was  at  first  the  title  for  poems  of  the  Captivity  and  Return,  and 

^  Above,  page  97. 


LITURGICAL  PSALMS  173 

this  little  psalter  came  to  be  increased  by  the  songs  of  pilgrimages 
to  the  second  Temple  ;  or,  more  probably,  the  old  traditionary 
Pilgrim  Songs  made  the  first  collection,  and  its  contents  were 
doubled  by  that  great  pilgrimage  beside  which  all  others  were 
commonplace.  In  any  case  the  '  Songs  of  Ascents '  are  a  series 
of  hymns  impressing  every  reader  with  their  strong  resemblance 
to  one  another ;  and  they  are  the  quintessence  of  all  that  is  most 
attractive,  and  most  unanalysable,  in  sacred  lyrics. 


CHAPTER   VII 

DRAMATIC    LYRICS    AND    LYRICS    OF    MEDITATION 

I  WISH  to  recall  two  points  touched  upon  in  earlier  chapters  of 

this  work.     In  our  general  survey  of  literary  classification  we  saw 

that,  in  the  nature  of  things,  lyric  poetry  holds  an 

rama  ic  intermediate  position  between  epic  and  drama ;  that 

thus,  without  wandering  far  from  its  proper  path  of 

meditation,  a  lyric  poem  can  at  one  moment  contain  purely  epic 

description,  at  another   moment   present   a   detail   dramatically. 

Again,  we  saw  it  as  a  distinction  of  Hebrew  literature  that  it  has 

no  completely  separate  drama,  but  that  dramatic  form  appears  as 

a  considerable  modifying  force  in  other  departments  of  its  poetry. 

We  are  now  to  see  how  this  dramatic  form  invades  the  department 

of  lyric  poetry,  imtil  it  is  possible  for  even  so  short  a  lyric  as  a 

psalm  to  be  in  essence  a  complete  drama. 

The  simplest  way  of  making  this  point  clear  will  be  to  put  side 
by  side  certain  poems  exhibiting  different  stages  of  advance  from 
lyric  to  drama.  Let  the  reader  first  compare  carefully  Psalms 
seventy-seven  and  one  hundred  and  forty-three.  The  situation  in 
the  two  is  identical :  a  sufferer  seeks  to  gain  fortitude  in  his  trouble 
by  meditating  on  the  wonderful  doings  of  God.  And  to  some 
extent  the  matter  of  one  psalm  echoes  that  of  the  other  :  in  par- 
ticular, where  one  poem  simply  speaks  of  finding  comfort  in  old 
memories  the  other  recites  these  memories  at  full  length.  As 
regards  the  form,  however,  in  which  the  thoughts  are  conveyed  to 
us,  the  two  poems  will  be  found  to  represent  dilTerent  degrees  of 
proximity  to  dramatic  presentation. 

174 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  175 


PSALM   LXXVII 

I  will  cry  unto  God  with  my  voice;  Monody  mingling 

Even  unto  God  with  my  voice,  description  with 

And  he  will  give  ear  unto  me.  presentation 

In  the  day  of  my  trouble  I  sought  the  Lord  : 

My  hand  was  stretched  out  in  the  night,  Und  slacked  not; 

My  soul  refused  to  be  comforted. 

I  remember  God,  and  am  disquieted : 

I  complain,  and  my  spirit  is  overwhelmed. 

Thou  boldest  mine  eyes  watching : 

I  am  so  troubled  that  I  cannot  speak. 

I  have  considered  the  days  of  old, 

The  years  of  ancient  times. 

I  call  to  remembrance  my  song  in  the  night : 

I  commune  with  mine  own  heart; 

And  my  spirit  made  diligent  search. 

"  Will  the  Lord  cast  off  for  ever? 

And  will  he  be  favourable  no  more? 

Is  his  mercy  clean  gone  for  ever? 

Doth  his  promise  fail  for  evermore? 
Hath  God  forgotten  to  be  gracious? 

Hath  he  in  anger  shut  up  his  tender  mercies?  " 
And  I  said,  "This  is  my  infirmity; 

But  I  will  remember  the  years  of  the  right  hand  of  the  Most  High. 
I  will  make  mention  of  the  deeds  of  the  Lord; 
For  I  will  remember  thy  wonders  of  old. 
I  will  meditate  also  upon  all  thy  work, 
And  muse  on  thy  doings. 

Thy  way,  O  God,  is  in  holiness  : 

Who  is  a  great  god  like  unto  God? 

Thou  art  the  God  that  doest  wonders : 

Thou  hast  made  known  thy  strength  among  the  peoples. 

Thou  hast  with  thine  arm  redeemed  thy  people, 

The  sons  of  Jacob  and  Joseph. 

The  waters  saw  thee,  O  God; 

The  waters  saw  thee,  they  were  afraid : 

The  depths  alsolrembled. 

The  clouds  poured  out  water; 

The  skies  sent  out  a  sound : 

Thine  arrows  also  went  abroad ; 


176  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

The  voice  of  thy  thunder  was  in  the  whirlwind; 

The  Hghtnings  Hghtened  the  world : 

The  earth  trembled  and  shook. 

Thy  way  was  in  the  sea, 

And  thy  paths  in  the  great  waters, 

And  thy  footsteps  were  not  known. 

Thou  leddest  thy  people  like  a  flock, 

By  the  hand  of  Moses  and  Aaron." 

This  poem  so  far  resembles  drama  that  it  is  a  monody :  instead  of 
an  author  speaking  about  some  one  else,  we  have  the  actual  sub- 
ject of  the  experience  speaking  in  his  own  person.  But  with  this 
dramatic  element  mingles  a  great  deal  of  the  description  that 
belongs  to  epic ;  the  sufferer  narrates  how  he  was  troubled,  and 
how  he  set  himself  to  think  ;  though  the  actual  words  of  his  think- 
ing  are  given,  yet  they  are  prefaced  by  the  formula 
ing  a  single  dra-  "  And  I  said — ."  In  the  next  illustration  all  such 
matic  situation  narration  disappears,  and  the  situation  is  brought 
out  in  the  cries  and  other  utterances  that  made  a  part  of  it ;  we 
have  a  present  experience,  and  not  a  narration  of  something  that 

is  past. 

PSALM   CXLIIl 

Hear  my  prayer,  O  Lord;  give  ear  to  my  supplications: 

In  thy  faithfulness  answer  me,  and  in  thy  righteousness. 

And  enter  not  into  judgement  with  thy  servant; 

For  in  thy  sight  shall  no  man  living  be  justified. 

For  the  enemy  hath  persecuted  my  soul; 

He  hath  smitten  my  life  down  to  the  ground : 

He  hath  made  me  to  dwell  in  dark  places, 

As  those  that  have  been  long  dead. 

Therefore  is  my  spirit  overwhelmed  within  me; 

My  heart  within  me  is  desolate. 

I  remember  the  days  of  old; 

I  meditate  on  all  thy  doings : 

I  muse  on  the  work  of  thy  hands. 

I  spread  forth  my  hands  unto  thee*: 

My  soul  thirsteth  after  thee,  as  a  weary  land. 
Make  haste  to  answer  me,  O  Lord;   my  spirit  faileth: 
Hide  not  thy  face  from  me; 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  177 

Lest  I  become  like  them  that  go  down  into  the  pit. 
Cause  me  to  hear  thy  lovingkindness  in  the  morning; 

For  in  thee  do  I  trust. 
Cause  me  to  know  the  way  wherein  I  should  walk; 

For  I  lift  up  my  soul  unto  thee. 
Deliver  me,  O  Lord,  from  mine  enemies : 

I  flee  unto  thee  to  hide  me. 
Teach  me  to  do  thy  will; 

For  thou  art  my  God : 

Thy  spirit  is  good; 
Lead  me  in  the  land  of  uprightness. 
Quicken  me,  O  Lord,  for  thy  name's  sake : 
In  thy  righteousness  bring  my  soul  out  of  trouble. 
And  in  thy  lovingkindness  cut  off  mine  enemies, 
And  destroy  all  them  that  afflict  my  soul; 
For  I  am  thy  servant. 

Here  then  we  have  pure  presentation  of  an  experience ;  there  is 

no  element  of  the  poem  that  is  not  dramatic.     Yet  it  is  not  drama 

but  only  a  dramatic  situation ;  to  make  it  complete  drama  would 

necessitate  a  chano;e  from  one  situation  to  a  differ- 

,  .   ,    .      ,  ^  ,  .  Complete 

ent  one,  which  is  the  essence  of  dramatic  movement  Dramatic  Lyric 

and  plot.     This  requisite  is  supplied  in  the  case  of    (change  of  situa- 

the  sixth  psalm,  in  which  again  we  hear  a  sufferer 

complaining  and  praying,  but  before  the  psalm  ends  deliverance 

has  come,  and  complaint  is  converted  into  rejoicing. 

PSALM  VI 

O  Lord,  rebuke  me  not  in  thine  anger, 
Neither  chasten  me  in  thy  hot  displeasure. 
Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  Lord; 

For  I  am  withered  away : 
O  Lord,  heal  me; 

For  my  bones  are  vexed. 

My  soul  also  is  sore  vexed  : 
And  thou,  O  Lord,  how  long? 
Return,  O  Lord,  deliver  my  soul : 
Save  me  for  thy  lovingkindness'  sake. 
For  in  death  there  is  no  remembrance  of  thee : 


178      .  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  Sheol  who  shall  give  thee  thanks? 

I  am  weary  with  my  groaning; 

Every  night  make  I  my  bed  to  swim; 

I  water  my  couch  with  my  tears. 

Mine  eye  wasteth  away  because  of  grief; 

It  waxeth  old  because  of  all  mine  adversaries. 

Depart  from  me,  all  ye  workers  of  iniquity; 

For  the  Lord  hath  heard  the  voic?  of  my  weeping. 

The  Lord  hath  heard  my  supplication; 

The  Lord  will  receive  my  prayer. 

All  mine  enemies  shall  be  ashamed  and  sore  vexed : 

They  shall  turn  back,  they  shall  be  ashamed  suddenly. 

In  this  case  we  have  a  monody  free  from  any  admixture  of  descrip- 
tion, and  the  monody  presents  a  sufferer  undergoing,  as  he  speaks 
it,  the  change  his  words  describe :  an  experience  is  acted  before 
us,  and  we  thus  have  a  lyric  poem  that  is  a  complete  drama. 

This  presentation   of  trouble    passing   dramatically  into   relief 
belongs  to  psalm  after  psalm  of  the  Bible  ;  from  the  Table  of 

Biblical  Lyrics  in  the  Appendix  they  can  be  studied 
other  examples  , .  ...  ,  ^  . 

as  a  hterary  species  in  themselves.     In  a  former 

chapter  was  reviewed  a  notable  example  of  it,  the  hundred  and 
thirty-ninth  psalm  :  there  the  dread  of  the  Divine  omniscience 
with  which  the  poem  opens  becomes  changed  into  a  loving  recog- 
nition of  its  supporting  efficacy,  and  the  transition 
Psalms  cxxxix,      ^^  made  at  the  very  centre  and  turning-point  of  the 

XXll,  Ivii  -'  .    . 

lyric  movement.     The  dramatic  transition  can  be 

intensified  by  its  abruptness.     The  psalm  that  commences  with 

the  cry. 

My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me? 

and  carries  into  detail  the  self-picturing  of  a  God- forsaken  heart, 
makes  its  change  from   despair  to  rapture  in  the   middle  of  a 

sentence. 

Deliver  my  soul  from  the  sword; 
My  darling  from  the  power  of  the  dog; 
Save  me  from  the  lion's  mouth  — 
—  Yea,  from  the  horns  of  the  wild-oxen  thou  hast  answered  me ! 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  179 

A  similar  abruptness  marks  the  turning-point  of  the  fifty-seventh 
psalm,  which  further  has  a  refrain  to  bind  closer  its  two  halves ; 
the  words  — 

Be  thou  exalted,  O  God,  above  the  heavens; 
Let  thy  glory  be  above  all  the  earth  !  — 

when  they  occur  the  first  time  must  be  understood  as  an  expression 
of  resignation ;  when  they  come  again  they  catch  from  the  sur- 
rounding verses  the  tone  of  unfettered  exultation.     And  perhaps 

the  most  complete  illustration  of  this  Uterary  form 

^  Psalm  111 

is  to  be  found  in  the  third  psalm.     Here  the  usual 

change  from  distress  to  happiness  appears  to  coincide  with  a  vari- 
ation in  external  surroundings  between  night  and  morning ;  brief 
as  the  poem  is,  it  amounts  to  a  miniature  drama  in  two  scenes. 

PSALM   III 


Lord,  how  are  mine  adversaries  increased ! 
Many  are  they  that  rise  up  against  me. 
Many  there  be  which  say  of  my  soul, 
"  There  is  no  help  for  him  in  God." 
But  thou,  O  Lord,  art  a  shield  about  me; 
My  glory,  and  the  lifter  up  of  mine  head. 
I  cry  unto  the  Lord  with  my  voice. 
And  he  answereth  me  out  of  his  holy  hill. 


I  laid  me  down  and  slept; 

I  awaked;   for  the  Lord  sustaineth  me. 

I  will  not  be  afraid  of  ten  thousands  of  tUe  people, 

That  have  set  themselves  against  me  round  about. 

Arise,  O  Lord;   save  me,  O  my  Gorl  : 

For  thou  hast  smitten  all  mine  enemies  upon  the  cheek  bone; 

Thou  hast  broken  the  teeth  of  the  wicked. 

Salvation  belongeth  unto  the  Lord  : 

Thy  blessing  be  upon  tliy  people.  -, 


ISO  LYRIC  POETRY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

The  term  Dramatic  Lyrics  will  cover  another  class  of  poems, 

which  have  a  great  literary  interest,  and  are  specially  characteristic 

of  the  psalter.     These  contain  two  dramatic  transi- 

Lyrics  with  Dou-      .  .  ,      -  ,  i  •      , 

bie  dramatic  tions  instead  of  onG  ;  yet  they  present  only  a  smgle 

Change  moment.     They  open  with  a  song  of  deliverance. 

Then  the  action  passes  backward  in  time  to  the  trouble  from 
which  the  speaker  has  been  delivered ;  and  this  is  presented 
dramatically  in  the  actual  words  it  evoked,  as  if  the  sufferer  were 
quoting  from  himself.  Then  the  poem  returns  to  the  point  at 
which  it  started,  and  the  triumph  is  renewed.  The  great  illus- 
tration of  this  type  is  the  twenty-seventh  psalm. 

PSALM  XXMI 

opening   The  Lord  is  my  light  and  my  salvation;   whom  shall  I  fear? 
triumph  -j-j^g  Lord  is  the  strength  of  my  life;   of  whom  shall  I  be  afraid? 

When  evil-doers  came  upon  me  to  eat  up  my  flesh, 

Even  mine  adversaries  and  my  foes,  they  stumbled  and  fell. 

Though  an  host  should  encamp  against  me, 

^ly  heart  shall  not  fear : 

Though  war  should  rise  against  me, 

Even  then  will  I  be  confident. 

One  thing  have  I  asked  of  the  Lord,  that  will  I  seek  after; 

That  I  may  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  my  life, 

To  behold  the  beauty  of  the  Lord,  and  to  inquire  in  his  temple. 

For  in  the  day  of  trouble  he  shall  keep  me  secretly  in  his  pavilion : 

In  the  covert  of  his  tabernacle  shall  he  hide  me ; 

He  shall  lift  me  up  upon  a  rock. 

And  now  shall  mine  head  be  lifted  up  above  mine  enemies  round 
,      *       about  me ; 

And  I  will  offer  in  his  tabernacle  sacrifices  of  joy; 

I  will  sing,  yea,  I  will  sing  praises  unto  the  Lord. 

• 
retrogres-         "  Hear,  O  Lord,  when  I  cry  with  my  voice : 
sion  to  the  Have  mercy  also  upon  me,  and  answer  me. 

time  of  When  thou  saidst,  'Seek  ye  my  face;  '  my  heart  said  unto  thee, 

'  Thy  face.  Lord,  will  I  seek.' 

Hide  not  thy  face  from  me; 

Put  not  thy  servant  away  in  anger : 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  181 

Thou  hast  been  my  help; 

Cast  me  not  off,  neither  forsake  me,  O  God  of  my  salvation. 

For  my  father  and  my  mother  have  forsaken  me, 

But  the  LoKU  will  take  me  up. 

Teach  me  thy  way,  O  Lord, 

And  lead  me  in  a  plain  path. 

Because  of  mine  enemies. 

Deliver  me  not  over  unto  the  will  of  mine  adversaries : 

For  false  witnesses  are  risen  up  against  me, 

And  such  as  breathe  out  cruelty  "  — 

I  had  fainted,  unless  I  had  believed  to  see  the  goodness  of      return  to 
the  Lord  triumph 

In  the  land  of  the  living. 
Wait  on  the  Lord  : 

Be  strong,  and  let  thine  heart  take  courage; 
Yea,  wait  thou  on  the  Lord. 

There  is  no  mistaking  the  sense  of  deliverance  animating  the 
opening  section ;  this  strain  is  abruptly  resumed  at  the  close ; 
what  then  is  more  natural  than  to  connect  the  intervening  verses 
with  the  trouble  to  which  the  deliverance  relates?  No  difificulty 
would  have  been  felt  had  the  middle  verses  of  the  poem  been 
prefaced  by  the  formula,  "  And  I  said  — ."  But  the  omission  of 
such  introduction  makes  the  whole  more  vivid  and  dramatic  :  it 
is  like  a  substitution  of  direct  speech  for  oblique.  Some  of  those 
who  do  not  recognise  the  structure  I  have  described  deal  with 
the  difficulties  of  the  poem  by  dividing  it,  and  insist  that  at  verse 
seven  a  different  psalm  commences,  the  two  having  been  made 
one  by  editors  or  transcribers.  But  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  there 
is  in  favour  of  such  an  explanation.  No  external  evidence  is  sug- 
gested. No  motive  appears  for  thus  putting  together  what,  to  the 
ordinary  reader,  seems  separated  by  such  a  break.  INIoreover, 
the  theory  does  not  really  solve  the  difficulty,  since  the  transition 
from  verse  twelve  to  the  close  is  as  abrupt  as  the  transition  from 
verse  six  to  verse  seven.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  explanation 
here  suggested,  the  breaks  become  part  of  the  dramatic  effect  of 
the  whole  ;  and  the  psalm,  instead  of  being  treated  as  something 


182  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

accidental  and  exceptional,  becomes  one  of  a  class  of  psalms 
which  have  as  their  common  structure  this  double  dramatic 
change.^ 

I  have  space  for  only  one  more  of  this  class  of  dramatic  lyrics  ; 
one  that  shows  an  interesting  variation  on  the  common  type. 
The  eighty-fifth  psalm  celebrates  the  deliverance 
of  the  nation  from  captivity.  It  has  the  usual 
opening  triumph ;  it  passes  like  the  rest  to  the  prayer  in  trouble ; 
then,  instead  of  a  sudden  return  to  the  first  tone,  it  has  a  transi- 
tion stage,  in  which  the  poet  pauses  to  wait  for  the  answer  to  his 
nation's  prayer ;  ^  the  answer  comes,  and  the  final  section  is  a 
burst  of  joy  in  which  the  recovered  fatherland  is  beheld  with 
a  glory  of  transfiguration  upon  it. 


PSALM   LXXXV 

opening       Lord,  thou  hast  been  favourable  unto  thy  land : 
triumph      -j-jjQ^  j^^gj  brought  back  the  captivity  of  Jacob, 

Thou  hast  forgiven  the  iniquity  of  thy  people, 

Thou  hast  covered  all  their  sin, 

Thou  hast  taken  away  all  thy  wrath, 

Thou  hast  turned  thyself  from  the  fierceness  of  thine  anger. 

1  Besides  the  tvvo  described  in  the  text  the  class  includes  Psalm  cviii :  its  first 
five  verses  express  the  triumph,  verses  6-12  are  the  prayer  of  the  trouble  [compare 
Psalm  Ix,  where  these  very  verses  make  part  of  the  prayer  on  the  occasion  of  the 
defeat  that  seems  to  have  preceded  the  \ictory].  —  Again  there  is  Psalm  cxliv :  it 
starts  with  ecstatic  sense  of  deliverance ;  then  verses  3-8  go  back  to  the  previous 
trouble,  expressing  the  sufferer's  confidence  in  God  and  scorn  of  the  foe ;  from 
verse  9  to  the  end  is  the  '  new  song '  inspired  by  the  deliverance,  the  line  of 
thought  being  obscured  only  by  verse  11,  which  is  however  merely  the  repetition 
of  the  refrain  (compare  verses  7,  8)  parenthetically,  a  common  device  in  lyric 
poetry. 

Psalm  ix-x  [which  the  acrostic  structure  shows  to  be  a  single  poem]  represents 
the  same  structural  form  duplicated :  ix.  1-12,  triumph;  13,  14,  dramatic  prayer  of 
trouble;  15-20,  return  to  triumph;  x.  1-13,  recurrence  to  dramatic  prayer  of 
trouble;  14-18,  final  resumption  of  triumph. 

Psalm  xxxi  exhibits  a  similar  duplication  applied  to  the  dramatic  lyric  with  single 
change  [i-6  trouble,  7-8  deliverance,  9-18  trouble,  19-24  deliverance].  Compare 
with  both  these  last  examples  the  pendulum  movement  (above,  page  139). 

2  Compare  the  similar  pause  in  Habakkuk  ii.  i,  and  Psalm  Jxix.  22-9. 


LYRICS    OF  MEDITATION 


183 


retrogres- 
sion to 
time  of 
trouble 


transition- 
al stage 


return  to 
triumph 


"  Turn  us,  O  God  of  our  salvation, 
And  cause  thine  indignation  toward  us  to  cease. 
Wilt  thou  be  angry  with  us  forever? 
Wilt  thou  draw  out  thine  anger  to  all  generations  ? 
Wilt  thou  not  quicken  us  again, 
That  thy  people  may  rejoice  in  thee? 
Shew  us  thy  mercy,  O  Lord, 
And  grant  us  thy  salvation." 

I  will  hear  what  God  the  Lord  will  speak : 
For  he  will  speak  peace  unto  his  people. 
And  to  his  saints. 
But  let  them  not  turn  again  to  folly. 

Surely  his  salvation  is  nigh  them  that  fear  him, 

That  glory  may  dwell  in  our  land. 

Mercy  and  truth  are  met  together; 

Righteousness  and  peace  have  kissed  each  other. 

Truth  springeth  out  of  the  earth; 

And  righteousness  hath  looked  down  from  heaven. 

Yea,  the  Lord  shall  give  that  which  is  good; 

And  our  land  shall  yield  her  increase. 

Righteousness  shall  go  before  him ; 

And  shall  make  his  footsteps  a  ^^■ay  to  walk  in. 

Prayers,  Meditations,  and  Monodies  of  Experience  form  a  body 
of  lyric  poems  considerable  in  amount,  and  familiar  to  the  devo- 
tional reader.  They  call  for  litde  treatment  in  the  players,  Medita- 
present  work,  since  their  hterary  form  is  transpar-  tions,  and  Mono- 
ently  simple.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this  ^^^°  xpenence 
simplicity.  In  this  section  must  be  reckoned  that  to iir-de -force 
of  meditative  ingenuity,  the  one  hundred  and  nine- 
teenth psalm.  It  is  made  up  of  no  less  than  a 
hundred  and  seventy-six  sayings,  disposed  on  an  acrostic  arrange- 
ment, and  bound  together  by  the  common  feature  that  each  verse 
contains  some  synonym  for  that  which  is  the  topic  of  the  whole  — 
the  Law.  The  beauty  of  the  psalm  is,  however,  largely  lost  to  us 
by  the  neglect  in  our  English  versions  of  the  alphabetical  links.^ 


Psalm  cziz 


1  See  note  on  page  157. 


184  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

One  more  poem  may  be   mentioned.     The   fifty-third  psahn  is 

a  Meditation   on  Judgment  of  an  elaborate  type ; 
Psalm  liii  ,    .,  ^  ,.  ,       . 

Its  transitions  and  tluctuations  of  form  make  it  a 

rhapsody  in  miniature.     It  opens  with  the  much  quoted  hne  : 

The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  There  is  no  God  ! 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  explain  that  this  line  does  not  predicate 
folly  of  the  atheist ;  it  has  the  converse  meaning  of  ascribing  athe- 
ism to  the  fool.  It  goes  on  to  portray  the  '  fool,'  or  man  of  vicious 
life,  as  human  nature  gone  bad  and  become  *  filthy,'  like  rotten 
fruit.  Then  —  perhaps  with  a  faint  reminiscence  of  Abraham  and 
the  destruction  of  Sodom  —  it  calls  up  before  our  mind  the  pic- 
ture of  a  Divine  inspection  of  earth,  and  suggests  the  result  that 
"  not  one  "  righteous  man  is  to  be  found.  Upon  this  follows  the 
Divine  surprise  : 

Have  the  workers  of  iniquity  no  knowledge? 
Who  eat  up  my  people  as  they  eat  bread, 
And  call  not  uj^on  God. 

A  very  dramatic  stroke  marks  the  next  verse.  It  has  been  said 
that  magnetic  disturbances  in  the  sun  produce  tempests  on  the 
earth  :  this  might  serve  as  an  illustration  for  the  subtle  connection 
hinted  here,  whereby  the  wave  of  surprise  that  passes  over  the 
bosom  of  Deity  becomes  felt  upon  earth  as  a  mysterious  panic, 
striking  the  evil  without  visible  cause,  while  the  oppressed  people 
of  God  catch  the  spirit  of  triumph  and  defiance. 

There  were  they  in  great  fear,  where  no  fear  was : 

For  God  hath  scattered  the  bones  of  him  that  encampeth  against  thee; 

Thou  hast  put  them  to  shame,  because  God  hath  rejected  them. 

Here  the  psalm  ends.  But  a  postscript  ^  seems  to  have  been  added 
by  some  age  that  looked  in  vain  for  the  promised  interposition 
of  omnipotence  :  would  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were  indeed 
come  out  of  Zion  !  The  deliverance  of  the  captive  people  of  God 
would  be  such  a  trium.ph  as  has  been  pictured. 

1  Compare  Psalm    li ;   and   jiossibly   Psalms  xxv,   cxxx,   .xxxi.     As   to    Psalm 
Ixxxix,  see  page  149. 


LYRICS   OF  MEDITATION  185 

Last  among  our  divisions  of  lyric  poetry  comes  'tlie  type  most 
familiar  to  the  modern  reader,  the  class  of  poems  on  set  themes. 
The  Bible,  in  common  with  a  good  deal  of  ancient 
literature,  is  at  a  disadvantage  in  regard  to  this   !^?^^^™^  ^^ 
kind  of  poetry,  from  the  fact  that  its  manuscripts 
do  not  furnish  titles  to  such  psalms.     The  reader  who  has  not 
made  the  experiment  would  have  little  idea  how  much  may  be 
lost  to  modern  lyrics  if  they  be  read  without  the  author's  titles.    In 
the  absence  of  these  some  prominent  phrase  at  the  commence- 
ment is  apt  to  usurp  the  place  of  tide,  and  often  to  give  a  false 
suggestion  as  to  the  drift  of  the  whole.     In  the  tables  which  make 
the  Appendix  to  this  work  I  have  made  it  a  point,  wherever  the 
particular  class  of  literature  admits  of  it,  to  affix  such  titles  as  may 
be  collected  from  a  careful  study  of  the  unity. 

Given  the  theme,  the  modes  in  which  it  is  developed  by  the 
lyrics  of  the  psalter  do  not  differ  from  those  of    Repetition  as  a 
modern  poetry.     A  topic  may  be  sustained   and   mode  of  lyric 
kept  before  the  mind  by  repetition,  or  multiplica-   development 
tion  of  details.     The  psalm  which  might  have  for  its  title  "  The 
Lord  thy  Keeper,"  owes  no  small  part  of  its  effect 

r    1  •  1.1  1  •  r  Psalm  cxxi 

to  the  reiteration  of  this  word    keep    in  verse  after 

verse.     The  psalm  which  proclaims  "  Man  the  Viceroy  of  God  " 

sustains  the  thought  in  part  by  an  enumeration  of 

^  ,  .   ,  ,  ,  Psalm  viil 

the  orders   of  nature   over  which  man  has   been 

made  ruler.     Or,  to  take  another  example,  the  "  Hymn  on  God's 

House"   (Psalm  eighty-four)   is   a   cluster   of  the 

^  ,  .    \      r  •  T         1-        Psalm  Ixxxiv 

thoughts  which  in  the   mmd  of  a  pious  Israelite 

would  be  roused  by  the  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem.     As  the  season 

of  the  feasts  comes  round,  body  and  soul  seem  filled  with 

a  yearning  after  the  courts  of  the  Lord  ;  the  mystic  force 

which  in  Spring  leads  the  swallow  to  seek  a  nest  for  her  young 

becomes  to  the  worshipper  the  attraction  that  draws  him  towards 

his  true  home  beside  the  altars  of  his  God.     Happiest 

4-5 
they  whose  employment,  however  lowly,  keeps  them  all 

the  year  round  in  the  Temple  service.     Next  happy  are  those 


186  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

whose  one  passion  in  life  are  the  sacred  pilgrimages  :  the  road  to 
Zion  runs  through  their  heart.  Imagination  dwells  on  the  happy 
journeys  :  on  the  lonely  spots  of  the  route  converted  into 
gaiety  by  the  throng  of  travellers,  like  a  desert's  momen- 
tary flourishing  beneath  the  brief  spring  showers  ;  on  the  cUmbing 
of  height  after  height,  each  a  stage  nearer  the  sacred  goal ;  on 
Mount  Zion  itself,  and  the  anointed  people  bowing  before  its  God 
and  Shield,  and  feeling  streams  of  grace  and  glory  descending 
upon  it.  A  day  in  God's  courts  is  more  than  a  thousand  days 
of  life's  routine.^ 

Imagery  belongs  to  all  kinds  of  lyric  poetry  alike.  One  remark 
imaeervas  a  "^^^  ^^  made  as  to  the  use  of  it  by  the  poets  of  the 
mode  of  ijmc  de-  psalter.  It  is  characteristic  of  them  to  crowd  their 
veiopment  images   together  in  rapid   succession ;    and   such 

quick  play  of  imagery  sometimes  is  made  to  interchange  with  the 
development  of  a  single  image  in  full  detail.  I  will  give  two  illus- 
trations of  such  interchange. 

In  the  opening  verses  of  the  twenty-seventh  psalm  the  images 

are  so  crowded  together  that  there  is  danger  of  our  losing  them 

through  their  very  exuberance.     When  all  the  sug- 

Psalmxxvii.  1-6  .....  i  i      i  i 

gestions  lurkmg  m  word  and  phrase  are  pressed, 

the  whole  passage  seems  to  call  up  visions  of  danger  chasing  one 
another  as  through  the  changes  of  a  dream.  The  poet  is  desper- 
ately threading  his  way  through  pitchy  blackness,  with  pitfalls  all 
around  him  —  when  a  sudden  light  shines,  and  all  is  clear:  the 
Lord  is  that  light.  He  is  back  again  in  the  thick  of  his  perils, 
he  has  actually  stumbled  —  when  he  is  suddenly  caught  up  and 
supported  :  in  that  salvation  he  sees  the  Lord.  Now  he  is  being 
chased  by  the  foe,  and  they  are  gaining  upon  him  —  when  a 
stronghold  unseen  before  opens  its  gates  to  him  and  he  is  safe  : 
Jehovah  is  that  stronghold  of  life,  and  of  whom  in  future  need  he 
be  afraid  ? 

1  I  understand  verses  8-12  as  the  actual  prayer  of  the  pilgrims,  now  arrived  in 
the  Temple,  interrupted  by  the  parenthesis  of  verse  10.  Such  a  parenthetic  inter- 
ruption is  highly  characteristic  of  lyric  triumph :  a  closely  parallel  case  is  Judges 
v.  12.     See  the  arrangement  of  Deborah's  Song,  above,  page  134. 


LYRICS   OF  MEDITATION  187 

The  scene  has  changed  and  the  crowd  of  his  adversaries  and  foes, 
with  dream-hke  horror  taking  the  shape  of  beasts  of  prey,  are  rush- 
ing upon  him  ;  there  is  no  escape,  and  already  he  can  see  the 
sharp  teeth  —  when,  lo,  they  stumble  over  hidden  pitfalls  and  dis- 
appear from  view  : 

When  evil-doers  came  upon  me  to  eat  up  my  flesh, 

Even  mine  adversaries  and  my  foes,  they  stumbled  and  fell. 

He  is  now  in  a  solitary  tower  and  countless  hosts  beleaguer  him 
on  all  sides,  yet  he  feels  no  doubt  or  fear ;  now  an  ambush  of  a 
whole  army  suddenly  rises  out  of  the  ground,  but  he  can  only  won- 
der how  it  comes  that  no  tremor  shakes  him. 

Though  an  host  should  encamp  against  me, 
My  heart  shall  not  fear  : 
Though  war  should  rise  against  me, 
Even  then  will  I  be  confident. 

The  various  images  have  flitted  past  us  like  a  succession  of  dream 
changes  as  the  waking  point  is  neared.  And  a  transition  like  that 
from  the  fitful  visions  of  sleep  to  the  steady  light  of  waking  comes 
over  the  psalm  as  the  poet  passes  on  to  the  "  one  thing  "  he  has 
desired  of  the  Lord  :  this  all-sufficing  aspiration  is  for  a  life-long 
dwelling  in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  in  happy  round  of  meditation 
and  service,  on  a  rock  of  security  far  above  the  disturbance  of 
peril  and  trouble.  This  psalm  then  has  illustrated  the  change  from 
a  rapid  succession  of  images  to  a  single  sustained  metaphor. 

A  similar  transition,  but  in  reverse  order,  marks  the  twenty- 
third  psalm.     This  opens  with  the  peaceful  imagery 

.  Psalm  xxiii 

of  pastoral  life  drawn  out  to  its  furthest  detail. 

The  Lord  is  my  shepherd ;  I  shall  not  want. 

He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures : 

He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 

He  restoreth  my  soul : 

He  guideth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his  name's  sake. 

Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

I  will  fear  no  evil;    for  thou  art  with  me  : 

Thy  rod  antl  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me. 


188  LYRIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Then  the  break  comes,  and  a  quick  succession  of  varying  images 
passes  before  us.  In  one  line  the  image  is  that  of  a  siege,  and  the 
poet  is  pressed  by  hunger  —  when,  lo,  a  mystic  table  is  before  him, 
and  the  enemy  looks  on  helpless  and  amazed.  In  the  next  line  he 
is  a  festal  guest,  the  sweet  perfume  is  poured  over  him,  and  the 
wine  of  abundance  is  by  his  side.  Again  the  imagery  changes, 
and  he  sees  goodness  and  mercy  following  him  in  his  journeyings 
through  life,  as  the  streams  of  water  followed  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness.  Once  more  the  thought  changes  to  the  Temple  :  other 
men  may  make  their  occasional  pilgrimages,  but  he  will  be  a 
dweller  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever. 

An  important  topic  for  the  expository  critic  is  Concealed 
Imagery.  It  is  possible  for  a  metaphorical  idea  to  be  sustained 
Concealed  throughout  the  whole  of  a  poem  or  lengthy  passage. 

Imagery  and  yet  not  to  be  embodied  in  distinct  words  ;  the 

image  must  be  collected  from  a  variety  of  indirect  references, 
while  to  miss  it  is  to  lack  the  key  to  the  whole.  Such  Concealed 
Imagery  will  explain  some  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  Bible. 
It  has  been,  for  example,  well  suggested  that  the 
Psalm  xxxu  .^^^  underlying  the  eighty-second  psalm  is  that  of 
a  hierarchy  of  world-rulers,  such  as  the  *  Sons  of  God  '  mentioned 
in  the  prologue  to  Job.  We  see  in  the  latter  poem  how  one  of  them 
can  interfere  in  the  guidance  of  human  events,  always  of  course 
with  the  Divine  permission ;  and  the  suggestion  of  the  plural  is 
that  there  are  many.  It  is  supposed  by  Professor  Cheyne  that 
a  scene  like  the  prologue  to  Job  underlies  this  eighty-second 
psalm,  the  '  gods,'  '  sons  of  the  Most  High,'  being  such  spiritual 
world-rulers ;  that  it  is  these,  and  not  earthly  judges,  who  are  the 
objects  of  the  Divine  remonstrance,  and  they  are  held  responsible 
for  the  corruption  of  mankind  which  they  have  failed  to  pre- 
vent.    Only  upon  such  a  supposition  does  the  conclusion  become 

intelligible. 

I  said,  Ve  are  gods, 

And  all  of  you  sons  of  the  Most  High : 

Nevertheless  ye  shall  die  like  men, 

And  fall  like  one  of  the  princes. 


LYRICS  OF  MEDITATION  189 

The  supernatural  Powers  who  have  neglected  their  office  are 
threatened  with  degradation  to  the  rank  of  men  with  the  doom 
of  mortaUty.^ 

No  doubt  the  suggestion  of  Concealed  Imagery  is  an  uncertain 
weapon  of  interpretation,  and  one  which  leaves  much  room  for  the 
fancy  of  an  individual  expositor.  It  is  therefore 
with  diffidence  that  I  suggest  the  application  of  it 
to  a  poem  which  is  amongst  the  most  familiar  psalms  of  the 
psalter,  but  which  leaves  on  my  own  mind  an  impression  different 
from  that  ordinarily  associated  with  it.  To  many  readers  the 
ninetieth  psalm  is  known  as  part  of  the  Service  for  the  Burial  of 
the  Dead :  it  comes  therefore  to  be  connected  with  thoughts 
of  gloom  and  bereavement.  But  the  language  justifying  that  use 
of  it  is  confined  to  one  part  of  the  psalm  ;  when  the  whole  is 
studied  it  is  found  to  take  a  wider  range.  If  the  total  play  of 
thought  and  details  of  imagery  in  this  poem  be  put  together,  the 
resultant  appears  to  me  to  fit  in  with  a  Hymn  of  Mountain 
Sunrise. 

Let  the  reader  fix  in  his  imagination  the  mountain  scenery  that 
would  surround  one  who  has  made  his  dwelling-place  in  the  deserts 
of  the  Holy  Land.  He  has  awoke  in  the  midst  of  a  dreadful  soli- 
tude, with  the  break  of  day  at  hand.  Monotony  of  rocky  land- 
scape stretches  in  every  direction  ;  here  are  heaps  of  shingle  and 
crumbling  dust,  there  deep  clefts  wrapped  in  blackest  shadow ; 
the  scantiest  vegetation  may  be  seen  in  the  crannies,  or  shows 
greener  at  the  margin  of  the  torrent  that  rushes  down  by  his  side. 
He  watches  through  the  last  phase  of  the  night,  and  feels  the 
solemn  mystery  attaching  to  these  impalpable  changes  of  time, 
and  the  passage  of  day  into  day.  The  sun  rises,  and  the  stony 
desert  becomes  a  mirror  to  reflect  its  brilliance  ;  soon  the  light  has 
penetrated  to  the  lowest  depth  of  every  cleft,  and  the  landscape 
glows  like  a  furnace  ;  the  grass  by  the  torrent's  side,  which  had 
bloomed  for  a  moment  in  the  morning  freshness,  has  already  begun 

1  The  same  image  will  be  found  to  underlie  the  fifty-eighth  psalm  (see  marginal 
readings  of  R.  V.). 


190  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

to  droop  and  wither.  But  the  dominant  sensation  is  still  the 
unbroken  solitude  of  his  mountain  dwelling,  which  has  thus 
watched  day  pass  into  day  without  change  since  the  very  founda- 
tion of  the  world.  Suddenly  his  thoughts  rise  to  a  higher  plane 
in  the  contemplation  of  a  vaster  changelessness,  which  has  been  a 
home  for  Israel,  and  has  endured  through  a  succession,  not  of 
day  into  day,  nor  generation  into  generation,  but  of  everlasting 
into  everlasting. 

Lord,  thou  hast  been  our  dwelling  place 

In  all  generations. 

Before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth, 

Or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the  earth  and  the  world, 

Even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  thou  art  God. 

It  is  an  eternity  like  this  that  makes  divisions  of  time  and  succes- 
sion of  human  generations  appear  so  feeble  ;  the  thought  of  them 
can  find  vent  only  in  a  chain  of  images  drawn  from  all  that  is  around 
the  poet.  God  turns  man  "  into  crumbling  dust," 
like  the  debris  he  sees  before  him ;  a  thousand 
years  in  his  sight  are  but  "  as  yesterday  when  it  passeth  "  into 

to-day,  as  the  watch  of  the  night  he  had  felt  so 
verse  4  (margin)      ....  .  .  ,  ^  vi       ^i  • 

brief;  the  generations  of  men  rush' past  hke  this 

torrent  flood  by  his  side ;  they  drop  as  lightly  as  sleep  fell  from 

him  when  the  dawn  awoke  him  ;  they  are  like  the  grass  beside  the 

torrent  flood,  which  he  had  just  seen  bloom  in  the 

verse  ^  •  • 

morning's  freshness,  and  which  is  already  withering 
in  the  glare  of  the  day.  Verily  the  Divine  anger  is  a  scorching 
sun  which  lays  bare  all  iniquity,  which  pours  light  upon  the  most 

secret  sins  as  this  sun's  rays  are  illuminating  the 

verses  7—8 

deep  clefts  that  were  so  dark  in  the  shadows  of 
morning.  And  under  wrath  like  this  the  "  days  of  our  years  "  are 
being  brought  to  an  end  —  "  like  a  tale  that  is  told."  This  strik- 
ing phrase  has  been  traditionally  understood  as  comparing  human 
life  to  a  story,  —  in  itself  an  exquisite  idea.  But,  in  the  absence 
of  any  indication  from  the    original  (for   the   Hebrew  word  is 


LYRICS   OF  MEDITATION  191 

obscure),  surely  the  context  obliges  us  to  understand  the  other 
sense  of  the  word  '  tale ' :  the  years  pass  as  swiftly  as  if  they  were 
but  being  counted  —  one,  two,  three,  four,  ...  up  to  seventy; 
or  if  it  be  eighty,  yet  the  ten  years  so  proudly  achieved  are  ten 
years  of  labour  and  sorrow.  But  this  meditation  on  swiftly  passing 
years  is  suddenly  brought  to  a  noble  climax : 

So  teach  us  to  number  our  days, 

That  we  may  get  us  an  heart  of  wisdom. 

Now  the  whole  spirit  of  the  psalm  changes,  and  another  class  of 
associations  come  to  the  front :  the  freshness  of  morning,  and  its 
irresistible  suggestion  of  repentance  and  a  new  start,  of  casting 
trouble  and  affliction  behind  like  the  night  that  is  past,  and  look- 
ing to  the  future  as  a  day  of  glory. 

Return,  O  Lord;  how  long? 

And  let  it  repent  thee  concerning  thy  servants. 

O  satisfy  us  in  the  morning  with  thy  mercy; 

That  we  may  rejoice  and  be  glad  all  our  days. 

Make  us  glad  according  to  the  days  wherein  thou  hast  afflicted  us, 

And  the  years  wherein  we  have  seen  evil. 

The  thought  is  carried  forward  with  the  concealed  image  of  sun- 
rise and  day  beneath  it.  The  work  which  God  works  for  his 
people  shall  "  appear  "  —  like  the  sun  mounting  above  the  hori- 
zon, and  so  "  the  beauty  of  the  Lord  their  God  shall  be  upon 
them."  And  a  final  association  with  morning  —  the  zest  for  work 
it  brings  —  closes  the  psalm  : 

Establish  thou  the  work  of  our  hands  upon  us; 
Yea,  the  work  of  our  hands,  establish  thou  it. 

The  psalm  is  thus  seen  to  be  made  up  of  three  sections.  The 
last  gives  a  prominent  place  to  the  phrase  "  in  the  morning,"  and 
is  filled  with  morning  thoughts  of  repentance,  of  change  from  a 
dark  past  to  a  bright  future,  of  beauty  shed  upon  God's  people 
from  above,  of  security  for  the  work  of  the  hands.  The  middle 
section  has  the  one  thought  of  succession  —  succession  of  days,  of 


192  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

generations ;  and  this  is  in  one  verse  expressly  associated  with  the 
image  of  yesterday  passing  into  to-day.  Tlirough  both  these  sec- 
tions, then,  the  idea  of  morning  is  present.  The  first  section  brings 
forward  mountains  and  the  framework  of  earth  as  enduring  thing? 
to  be  contrasted  with  the  greater  eternity  of  their  Creator ;  while 
all  the  images  used  are  such  as  would  form  part  of  a  mountain 
landscape.  When  the  whole  poem  is  put  together,  then,  it  will 
seem  that,  while  its  subject  is  "  Life  as  a  passing  Day,"  the  setting 
of  the  thought  is  the  concealed  imagery  of  a  mountain  sunrise. 

We    have    thus    considered   imagery,   repetition,  enumeration, 

as  modes  by  which  a  theme  can  be  developed   in  lyric  poetry. 

There  is  one   other  mode,  simpler   still :    that  of 

Contrast  as  a  _,  -r.       •  i  ,  n     i     t  i 

mode  of  develop-  Contrast.  Previous  chapters  have  alluded  to  the 
nient  contrast  of  the  Heavens  above  and  the  Law  within 

which  makes  the  subject  of  the  nineteenth  psalm ;  and  again  to 
the  Supreme  Evil  and  the  Supreme  Good  which  stand  contrasted 
in  the  thirty-sixth.  But  it  seems  specially  appropriate  in  this 
work,  and  at  this  point  of  it,  to  mention  the  first  psalm,  which 
stands  as  preface  to  the  whole  lyrical  poetry  of  Scrip- 
ture.    It  celebrates  the  man, 

Whose  delight  is 

In  the  Law  of  the  Lord  : 

And  in  his  Law 
Doth  he  meditate  day  and  night. 

No  one  will  understand  the  word  '  Law  '  in  its  narrow  modern 
sense  ;  when  fully  weighed,  the  expression  '  the  Law  of  the  Lord  ' 
will  seem  not  very  different  from  what  is  conveyed  to  a  modern 
ear  by  the  term  '  Sacred  Scriptures.'  The  first  psalm  may  be  said 
to  bestow  a  blessing  on  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible.  The 
thought  of  this  prefatory  psalm  is  worked  out  by  Contrast.  The 
theme  is  stated  in  the  form  of  a  contrast ;  the  Meditative  Life  is 
made  antithetical  to  another  type  of  life,  not  necessarily  vicious, 
but  one  that  looks  in  other  directions  than  the  Law  of  the  Lord 
for  the  counsels  by  which  it  shall  walk  :  —  in  modern  phraseology. 


LYRICS   OF  MEDITATION  '193 

the  Worldly  Life.  This  double  theme  is  illustrated  by  an  exqui- 
site piece  of  contrasted  imagery.  The  Worldly  Life  is  compared 
to  "  the  Chaff  which  the  wind  driveth  away  "  :  airy,  not  ungraceful 
motion  of  that  which  is  mere  outside  without  substance,  carried 
round  by  forces  from  without.  Ov'er  against  this  is  set  the  rooted 
Tree,  drawing  perpetual  sustenance  from  the  water  streams,  mov- 
ing harmoniously  through  its  season  of  leafage  and  fruit.  Then 
the  contrast  is  carried  forward  to  that  which  is  the  dominant 
thought  of  Biblical  poetry  — '  the  judgment.'  There  is  no  denun- 
ciation or  detailed  prophecy ;  but  the  psalmist  is  assured  that  the 
empty  life  "  shall  not  stand  in  the  judgment."  And  on  the  other 
hand,  no  particular  blessing  is  invoked  upon  "  the  way  of  the  right- 
eous "  :  it  is  enough  that  "  the  Lord  knoweth  it." 


CHAPTER   VIII 

LYRIC  IDYL  :  '  Solomon's  song  ' 

The  poem  which  is  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter  affords  a 

good  illustration  of  the  principle  underlying  this  work,  —  that  clear 

^.  .^  ^  -  .  .  knowledsje  of  the  outer  literary  form  is  an  essential 
Divided  Opinion  »  ■' 

as  to  the  form  of  for  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  matter  and  spirit  of 
Solomon's  Song  literature.  That  Solomoti's  Song  is  dialogue  of  a 
dramatic  character,  with  a  story  underlying  it,  must  be  recognised 
by  all ;  but  when  we  go  beyond  this  we  find  commentators  divided, 
one  set  holding  the  poem  to  be  a  drama,  the  other  an  idyl. 
Those  who  consider  it  a  drama  are  in  substantial  agreement  as  to 
its  plot :  that  the  Shulammite  is  wooed  by  King  Solomon  with 
offers  of  regal  splendour,  that  she  remains  faithful  to  her  humbler 
Shepherd  lover,  that  in  the  end  King  Solomon  gives  way  and  the 
faithful  lovers  are  united.  The  other  interpretation,  as  followed  in 
this  chapter,  identifies  Solomon  himself  with  the  humble  lover. 
The  whole  story  now  becomes  this  :  that  King  Solomon,  visiting 
his  vineyard  upon  Mount  Lebanon,  comes  by  surprise  upon  the 
fair  Shulammite  maiden ;  she  flees  from  him,  and  he  visits  her 
disguised  as  a  Shepherd  and  wins  her  love ;  then  he  comes  in 
state  to  claim  her  as  his  queen ;  they  are  being  wedded  in  the 
Royal  Palace  when  the  poem  opens.  Now,  whichever  of  these 
interpretations  be  correct,  it  is  clear  that  the  technical  question  as 
between  drama  and  idyl  involves  a  fundamental  difference  in  the 
story  of  the  poem. 

I  believe  that  the  divergence  of  interpretation  in  the  present 
case  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that,  while  Drama  is  a  thing  familiar 

194 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  195 

to  all,  few  have  considered  the  extent  to  which  the  development 
of  Lyric  Idyl  can  be  carried.^     It  may  be  admitted  Distinction  of 
at  once  that  the  traditional  masters  of  the  Idyl,   Lyric  idyi  from 
such  as  Theocritus  and  Virgil,  have  given  us  noth-   ^"^^^^ 
ing  that  in  dramatic  elaborateness  approaches  Solomoii's  Song. 
But  the  fine  arts  are  all  one  family,  and  the  development  which 
may  stop  short  in  pure   poetry  may  be   carried  forward   in  the 
sister  art  of  music.     Speaking  roughly,  we  may  say  that  the  differ- 
ence between  Drama  and  Lyric  Idyl  is   the  difference  between 
Opera  and  Oratorio  ;  and  most  of  the  peculiar  structural  features 
of  Solomon's  Song  are  such  as  will  be  readily  intelligible  to  the 
student  of  dramatic  music. 

It  is  necessary  to  see  exactly  what  is  involved  in  the  difference 
between  the  dramatic  form  and  the  form  of  lyric  idyl.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  inevitable  in  drama  that  the  order    ,  .,    .,    ^ 

'■  '  (i)  Incidents  may 

of  incidents  should  tally  with  the  order  of  speeches  be  alluded  to  in 
representing  them.  In  narrating  a  story,  it  is  easy  ^'^yo^'^er 
to  mention  a  catastrophe  and  then  go  back  in  time  to  the  circum- 
stances which  brought  that  catastrophe  about.  But  drama  is  pure 
presentation,  and  its  action  can  never  go  back  ;  hence  the  neces- 
sity in  Ancient  Tragedy,  which  dramatised  only  the  end  of  a  story, 
of  lyric  choral  odes  to  bring  out  by  narrative  important  incidents 
that  happened  earlier  than  the  opening  scene.  In  a  lyric  idyl,  on 
the  contrary,  the  story  is  not  acted,  but  assumed  and  alluded  to ; 
and  allusion  can  be  made  to  the  different  parts  of  the  story  in  any 
order.  A  pure  dramatisation  of  a  love  story  would  begin  (say) 
with  the  first  meeting  of  the  lovers,  would  proceed  with  the  cir- 

1  The  word  '  Idyl '  is  diminutive  of  the  Greek  e/dc;  the  term  for  the  various 
forms  of  poetry.  Thus  tlie  Idyl  did  not  appear  in  our  table  of  Literary  Forms, 
because  it  may  be  a  slighter  variation  of  any  of  them  :  the  slightness  being  tradi- 
tionally supposed  to  consist  in  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter, — personal  love, 
domestic  life,  etc.  As  an  interesting  example  of  the  traditional  conception  appear- 
ing in  modern  art,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  Wagner's  Siegfried  is  an  elaborate 
and  massive  musical  drama :  but  when  the  composer  takes  the  themes  of  this 
opera  and  interweaves  them  with  an  old  cradle  song  to  make  a  birthday  serenade 
to  his  wife  in  honour  of  their  infant  son,  he  calls  it  the  Siegfried  Idyl. —  In  the  Bible 
Ruth  is  an  Epic  Idyl,  Solomons  Song  a.  Lyric  Idyl. 


196  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

cumstances  of  their  growing  intimacy,  and  end  with  their  marriage. 
But  the  series  of  idyls  making  Solomo7i's  Song  commences  with 
the  wedding  day,  goes  back  to  the  day  of  betrothal  and  remi- 
niscences of  the  courtship,  and  then  goes  forward  to  what  in  mod- 
ern parlance  might  be  called  the  close  of  the  honeymoon. 

Again,  in  a  drama  every  speech  must  be  referred  to  personal 
speakers,  either  an  individual  or  a  Chorus.  But  lyric  poetry,  in 
addition  to  these,  can  make  use  of  a  Reciting 
Chorus  ^"  ^°^  Chorus,  which  is  impersonal,  and  merely  the  au- 
thor's device  for  carrying  on  the  story  in  the  parts 
not  represented  dramatically.  Thus  in  Mendelssohn's  Elijah,  the 
Chorus  is  sometimes  personal,  as  where  it  presents  the  Priests 
of  Baal  crying,  "  O  Baal,  hear  us  "  ;  in  other  cases  it  is  imper- 
sonal, as  where  it  is  used  to  describe  the  fire  falling  from  heaven, 
or  to  point  the  moral  in  the  chorale,  "Cast  thy  burden  upon  the 
Lord."  So  in  the  present  case,  we  have  both  a  personal  Chorus 
of  Daughters  of  Jerusalem  who  escort  the  Bride,  and  a  merely 
abstract  Chonis  used  to  describe  the  journey  of  Solomon  in  his 
state  chariot.  Another  consideration  is  worth  mentioning  in  this 
connection.  Every  speech  in  a  drama  must  be  spoken  in  a  definite 
place  or  '  scene ' :  but  this  Reciting  Chorus  is,  on  the  contrary,  used 
as  a  device  for  suggesting  transition  from  one  scene  to  another. 

As  a  third  feature  of  the  Lyric   Idyl  may  be  mentioned  the 

refrains.     Refrains  in  lyric  poetry  always  may  be,  and  usually  are, 

parenthetic ;  they  must  not  be  attached  to  their 

(3)  parenthetic      context,  but  referred  to  the  poem  as  a  whole.     A 

refrains  '  ^ 

simple  modern  ballad  will  narrate  a  story,  —  how, 
for  example,  the  spectre  of  a  lover  comes  to  claim  his  mistress, 
how  she  responds  to  his  summons,  and  is  borne  to  a  distant  land, 
where  she  is  found  dead  on  his  tomb.  The  verses  containing  this 
narrative  will  be  continually  interrupted  by  the  refrain : 

—  Sing  hey,  sing  ho,  the  linden  tree  — 

These  words  have  no  point  in  relation  to  the  sentences  to  which 
they  are  attached,  but  very  likely  interrupt  their  grammatical  con- 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  197 

struction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  of  the  wind  singing 
through  the  trees  makes  an  effective  background  to  be  kept 
present  in  the  mind  through  the  whole  of  a  story  of  weird  inci- 
dent. Such  refrains  may  be  compared  to  the  musical  accompani- 
ment heard  continuing  the  strains  of  a  song  during  the  intervals 
between  the  spoken  verses.  In  the  present  case  there  are  three 
refrains  which,  wherever  they  occur,  must  be  separated  from  the 
dialogue.  In  their  subject  they  are  just  suited  to  keep  before  us 
tl\e  general  spirit  of  the  whole  poem.  In  one,  there  is  a  call  upon 
all  to  leave  the  lovers  to  their  repose. 

I  adjure  y OH,  O  datis;hte}-s  of  Jeriisalcm, 
r,      y  ,,,,-,      r   ,     r  ,  ,  H  ■  T-  comparB 

Hy  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  the  field,         ^^^      ^^^  ^-^^ 

That  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love. 

Until  it  please. 

The  second  is,  in  its  various  forms,  the  mutual  pledge. 

>  My  beloved  is  mine,  and  I  am  his :  ii.  i6:  compare 

He  feedeth  his  flock  among  the  lilies.  vi.  3  and  vii.  10 

The  third  is  the  summons  to  embrace. 

Until  the  day  break,  and  the  shadows  flee  away, 

„  ,,,,,,,,.,  ,  ii.  17 :  compare 

Turn,  my  beloved,  and  be  thou  like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart    ^^   g  ^^^  ^. jj 

Upon  the  mountains  of  separation. 

Love  strains  like  these  are  the  essence  of  the  whole  poem,  and 
are  naturally  used  to  separate  the  idyls  from  one  another,  or  mark 
the  natural  divisions  of  each. 

I  have  yet  to  mention  something  specially  characteristic  of  this 
poem,  which  is  readily  intelligible  as  a  feature  of  a  lyric   idyl. 
We  find  incidents  conveyed  dramatically  by  dia- 
logue which,  nevertheless,  cannot  be   part  of  the    (4)  dramatised 

°  '  '  i  reminiscences 

scene  in  which  they  occur,  but  must,  at  that  point, 
be  a  reminiscence.     Such  an  effect  may  be  called  a  Dramatised 
Reminiscence.     Thus  it  is  part  of  the  story  as  here  interpreted 
that  Solomon,  when  the  Shulammite  damsel  had  fled  from  him  at 


198  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

his  first  appearance,  continued  his  suit  to  her  in  the  disguise  of 
a  Shepherd.  She  wonders  who  this  stranger  is,  so  different  from 
the  shepherds  she  knows. 

i.  7  Tell  me,  O  thou  whom  my  soul  loveth, 

Where  thou  feedest  thy  flock, 
^^^lere  thou  makest  it  to  rest  at  noon: 
For  why  should  I  be  as  one  that  wandereth 
Beside  the  flocks  of  thy  companions? 

He  of  course  seeks  to  evade  her  scrutiny  by  a  vague  answer. 

i.  8  If  thou  know  not,  O  thou  fairest  among  women, 

Go  thy  way  forth  by  the  footsteps  of  the  flock, 
And  feed  thy  kids  beside  the  shepherds'  tents. 

Such  a  detail  in  itself  is  natural  enough  in  a  love  story.  But  the 
point  of  the  present  suggestion  is  that  the  position  of  the  speeches 
just  quoted  —  in  the  wedding  scene  —  is  perfectly  intelligible. 
It  is  natural  that  the  Shulammite,  when  for  the  first  time  she  be- 
holds her  royal  lover  in  the  splendour  of  his  palace,  should  allude 
to  her  former  attempt  to  penetrate  his  disguise.  And  it  is  equally 
natural  that  the  allusion  should  take  the  form  of  recalling  the 
actual  words  used  by  each  :  they  are  merely  quoting  their  former 
selves,  a  thing  which  we  have  already  seen  as  a  tendency  of  the 
dramatic  lyrics  in  the  psalter.^  Or,  to  take  another  instance, 
it  is  natural  for  the  king  in  his  musings  on  his  bride  to  recall 
the  moment  of  their  first  meeting.  The  sudden  surprise  of  the 
courtly  escort  at  the  rustic  maiden's  beauty  is  conveyed  in  the 
form  of  a  speech. 

vi.  10  Who  is  she  that  looketh  forth  as  the  morning. 

Fair  as  the  moon, 
Pure  as  the  sun, 
Terrible  as  an  army  with  banners? 

Her  startled  feelings  as  the  royal  cortege  surprised  her  are 
expressed  as  if  they  had  been  spoken. 

1  See  above,  page  i8o. 


LYRIC  IDYL:  'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  199 

I  went  down  into  the  garden  of  nuts,  vi.  ii 

To  see  the  green  plants  of  the  valley, 

To  see  whether  the  vine  budded. 

And  the  pomegranates  were  in  flower. 

Or  ever  I  was  aware,  my  soul  set  me 

Among  the  chariots  of  my  princely  jjeople. 

It  is  natural  to  follow  up  this  with  the  cry  to  the  damsel  to  stop. 

Return,  return,  O  Shulammite;  vi.  13 

Return,  return,  that  we  may  look  upon  thee. 

Then  will  be  expressed  her  uneasiness  at  the  gaze,  whether  spoken 
at  the  time  or  not. 

Why  will  ye  look  upon  the  Shulammite; 
As  upon  the  dance  of  Mahanaim? 

All  this  is  not  a  dialogue  taking  place  at  point  of  the  poem  where 
the  words  occur,  but  the  form  of  dialogue  thrown  over  the  sensa- 
tion of  an  emphatic  moment,  recalled  as  a  reminiscence  by  the 
king  in  the  midst  of  his  meditations  on  his  queen.  It  belongs 
naturally  to  the  free  movement  of  lyric  poetry  between  meditation 
and  dramatic  presentation  ;  and  resembles  the  common  device  in 
narrative  of  a  sudden  change  from  indirect  to  direct  narration.^ 

Keeping  these  points  of  literary  form  before  us,  we  may  follow 
the  poem  as  a  Suite  of  seven  Idyls.     The  first  pre-   Solomon's  Sone 
sents  the  Wedding  Day,  its  personages  being  the   as  a  Suite  of 
King,  the   Bride,  and  her  escort,  the    Chorus    of    ^^^^^^'^y^s 
Daughters  of  Jerusalem.     It  opens  with  the  decisive  moment  of 
the  ceremony  when  the  Bride  is  being  Ufted  over  the 
threshold ;  it  proceeds  with  the  conversation  inside  the 
palace ;  then  we  have  the  procession  from  the  banqueting  house 
to  the  bridal  chamber ;  and  the  closing  refrain  leaves  the  lovers 
to  their  repose. 

1  The  Dramatised  Reminiscence  may  be  conveniently  represented  to  the  eye  by 
inverted  commas. 


200  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

The  second  idyl  is  given  up  to  the  Bride's  Reminiscences.     She 
recalls  a  visit  of  her  lover  in  the  fair  springtide,  and  how 
they  were  interrupted.     She  tells  a  happy  dream  of  seek- 
ing her  lover  abroad  and  finding  him.     And  these  two  reminis- 
cences are  separated  by  refrains. 

The  third  idyl  goes  back  to  the  Day  of  Betrothal.  The  Recit- 
ing Chorus  describe  the  journey  of  King  Solomon  in  his  chariot  of 
state.  He  has  already  won  the  Shulammite's  love,  but 
now  he  is  to  throw  off  his  disguise  and  claim  her  as  his 
queen.  His  outpourings  of  love  follow,  and  her  acceptance ; 
then  the  Chorus  which  opened  this  third  idyl  closes  it  by  invoking 
a  blessing  on  the  happy  pair. 

The  fourth  in  this  '  song  of  songs  '  is  occupied  with  a  troubled 
Dream  of  the  Bride.  She  fancies  her  beloved  comes  to  her  door 
in  the  night ;  she  delays  but  a  moment  to  adjust  her 
dress  and  dip  her  fingers  in  the  myrrh,  and  by  that 
moment's  waiting  she  loses  him,  and  wanders  in  vain  to  find  him. 
By  an  exquisite  touch  of  dream  change  she  finds  herself  (in  her 
dream)  accosting  the  Chorus  of  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  and  in 
dialogue  with  them  discusses  the  beauty  of  her  lover,  until  the  loss 
with  which  this  fourth  song  began  is  forgotten  in  the  triumphant 
refrain  of  the  close. 

The  fifth  idyl  belongs  to  the  royal  Bridegroom.  Its  opening 
vi.  4-vii.  and  close  are  musings  on  the  beauty  of  his  bride ;  the 
9  two  parts  are  separated  by  the  dramatised  reminiscence 

of  the  first  moment  of  their  meeting. 

The  last  two  songs  introduce  a  beautiful  piece  of  simple  human 
nature.  The  Bride  amid  the  splendour  of  the  palace  longs  for 
her  home  on  Lebanon,  and  in  the  sixth  song  persuades 
7  her  husband  to  journey  to  this  place  where  their  love  was 
^°^  first  pledged.     Accordingly,  the  scene  of  the  last  idyl  has 

"  "  ^~'''  changed  to  Lebanon.  A  few  words  of  the  Reciting 
Chorus  bring  out  the  arrival  of  the  pair;  —  the  words  sound  like  a 
brief  echo  from  their  description  of  the  former  journey  made  in 
state.     Renewal  of  love  follows  in  this  the  Bride's  home.     Then 


Vll.   lO- 

viii 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  201 

comes  a  very  natural  touch  :  the  Bride,  in  this  spot  where  she 
grew  up  from  infancy,  recalls  the  riddhng  speeches  her  Brothers 
used  to  make  to  her  when  she  was  too  young  to  understand  the 
mysteries  of  love.  She  then  makes  a  fresh  surrender  of  her  heart, 
with  a  quaint  conceit  founded  on  the  circumstance  that  her  hus- 
band is  (in  modern  phrase)  the  '  landlord  '  of  this,  home  of  herself 
and  brothers.  The  voices  are  heard  of  the  Escort  approaching  to 
conduct  them  back ;  so  with  a  final  embrace  the  poem  closes. 

I  am  about  to  cite  the  whole  poem  with  an  arrangement  intended 
to  make  it  easy  for  the  general  reader  to  follow.  One  more  prefa- 
tory remark  is  necessary.     This  is  a  poem  of  pure  conjugal  love. 

There  are  threescore  queens, 

And  fourscore  concubines, 

And  virgins  without  number : 
My  dove,  my  undefiled  is  but  one. 

Nevertheless,  a  reader  who  is  not  prepared  for  it  may  be  startled 
by  the  amatory  warmth  of  the  phraseology.  Partly  this  Amatory 
is  due  to  the  more  passionate  nature  of  oriental  peoples,  language 
But  partly  it  connects  itself  with  the  symbolism  of  Hebrew  poetry, 
which  enables  it  to  take  liberties  impossible  to  our  direct  western 
speech.  There  is  a  famous  passage  at  the  close  of  Ecclesiastes 
which  makes  the  disagreeable  symptoms  of  old  age  graceful  by 
throwing  over  them  a  symbolic  veil.  The  same  treatment  in  the 
poem  under  consideration  softens  the  warmth  of  amatory  speech. 
The  enraptured  gaze  of  the  Bridegroom  bending  over  his  Bride  at 
the  feast  is  disguised  as  a  "  banner  of  love  "waving  over  her. 
The  sweet  surrender  of  the  maiden  to  her  spouse  is  sym- 
bolically put : 

They  made  me  keeper  of  the  vineyards;  i.  6 

But  mine  own  vineyard  have  I  not  kept ! 

She  does  not  in  plain  terms  clasp  her  lover  to  her  bosom,  but  the 
refrain  bids  him  to  be  as  a  roe  "  on  the  mountains  of 

ii.  17 

separation."    The  Bible  consecrates  everything  it  touches  ; 

and  the  fact  is  not  without  significance  that  the  great  Honeymoon 

Song  of  all  literature  should  be  given  to  us  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 


202  LYRIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

THE   SONG   OF   SONGS 
i.  i-ii.  7  Idyl  I 

THE  WEDDING   DAY 

I 

Outside  the  Palace 

The  Bridal  Procession  approaches:    the  Royal  Bridegroom  leading  the  Bride,  fol- 
lowed by  an  Attendant  Chorus  of  Daughters  of  Jerusalem 

The  Bride 

Let  him  kiss  me  with  the  kisses  of  his  mouth : 

For  thy  love  is  better  than  wine; 

Thine  ointments  have  a  goodly  fragrance; 

Thy  name  is  as  ointment  poured  forth : 
Therefore  do  the  virgins  love  thee. 

A  pause  is  made  at  the  threshold  of  the  Palace 

The  Bride  {to  the  Bridegrooni) 
Draw  me  — 

Attendant  Chorus 
We  will  run  after  thee. 

The  Bridegroom  lifts  the  Bride  across  the  threshold 

The  Bride 
The  king  hath  brought  me  into  his  chambers. 

Attendant  Chorus. 

We  will  be  glad  and  rejoice  in  thee, 

We  will  make  mention  of  thy  love  more  than  of  wine. 

The  Bride 
In  uprightness  do  they  love  thee. 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  203 


Inside  the  Palace 

The  Bride  addresses  her  Attendant  Chorus 

The  Bride 

I  am  black,  but  comely, 

O  ye  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 

As  the  tents  of  Kedar, 

As  the  curtains  of  Solomon. 

Look  not  upon  me,  because  I  am  swarthy, 

Because  the  sun  hath  scorched  me. 

My  mother's  sons  were  incensed  against  me, 

They  made  me  keeper  of  the  vineyards; 

But  mine  own  vineyard  have  I  not  kept ! 

The  Bride  and  Bridegroom  converse:  Dramatised  Reminiscence  of  their  Courtship: 
how  she  sought  to  penetrate  his  disguise  and  he  answered  mysteriously 

"The  Bride 

"Tell  me,  O  thou  whom  my  soul  loveth, 

"  Where  thou  feedest  thy  flock, 

"  Where  thou  makest  it  to  rest  at  noon  : 

"  For  why  should  I  be  as  one  that  wandereth 

"  Beside  the  flocks  of  thy  companions?  " 

"The  Bridegroom 

"  If  thou  know  not,  O  thou  fairest  among  women, 
"  Go  thy  way  forth  by  the  footsteps  of  the  flock, 
"And  feed  thy  kids  beside  the  shepherds'  tents." 


The  Procession  from  the  Bantiueting  House  to  the  Bridal  Chamber 
The  Bridegroom 

I  have  compared  thee,  O  my  love, 

To  a  steed  in  Pharaoh's  chariots. 

Thy  cheeks  are  comely  with  plaits  of  hair, 

Thy  neck  with  strings  of  jewels. 

We  will  make  thee  plaits  of  gold 

With  studs  of  silver. 


204  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  Bride 

While  the  king  sat  at  his  table, 

My  spikenard  sent  forth  its  fragrance. 

IMy  beloved  is  unto  me  as  a  bundle  of  myrrh, 

That  lieth  betwixt  my  breasts. 

My  beloved  is  unto  me  as  a  cluster  of  henna-flowers 

In  the  vineyards  of  En-gedi. 

The  Bridegroom 
Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  love;   behold,  thou  art  fair; 
Thine  eyes  are  as  doves. 

The  Bride 
Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  beloved,  yea,  pleasant : 
Also  our  couch  is  green. 
The  beams  of  our  house  are  cedars, 
And  our  rafters  are  firs. 
I  am  a  rose  of  Sharon, 
A  lily  of  the  valleys. 

The  Bridegroom 

As  a  lily  among  thorns. 

So  is  my  love  among  the  daughters. 

The  Bride 
As  the  apple  tree  among  the  trees  of  the  wood, 
So  is  my  beloved  among  the  sons. 
I  sat  down  under  his  shadow  with  great  delight, 
And  his  fruit  was  sweet  to  my  taste. 
He  brought  me  to  the  banqueting  house. 
And  his  banner  over  me  was  love. 
Stay  ye  me  with  raisins,  comfort  me  w  ith  apples : 
For  I  am  sick  of  love. 
Let  his  left  hand  be  under  my  head. 
And  his  right  hand  embrace  me. 

REFRA  I.V 
I  adjure  yon,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 
By  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  the  field. 

That  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love. 

Until  it  please. 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  205 

Idyl  II  u-  s-iii.  5 

THE   bride's   reminiscences   OF  THE   COURTSHIP 

I 

How  her  lover  came  to  her  in  the  Springtide,  and  they  were  interrupted 

The  Bride 

The  voice  of  my  beloved  !  behold,  he  cometh, 

Leaping  upon  the  mountains,  skipping  upon  the  hills. 

My  beloved  is  like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart : 

Behold,  he  standeth  behind  our  wall, 

He  looketh  in  at  the  windows, 

He  sheweth  himself  through  the  lattice. 

My  beloved  spake,  and  said  unto  me, 

"  Rise  up, 
My  love, 
My  fair  one, 
And  come  away. 
For,  lo,  the  winter  is  past, 
The  rain  is  over  and  gone; 
The  flowers  appear  on  the  earth; 
The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come, 
And  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land; 
The  fig  tree  ripeneth  her  green  tigs, 
And  the  vines  are  in  blossom, 
They  give  forth  their  fragrance. 
Arise, 

My  love. 
My  fair  one, 
And  come  away. 
O  my  dove, 

That  art  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock, 
In  the  covert  of  the  steep  place, 
Let  me  see  thy  countenance, 
Let  me  hear  thy  voice ; 
For  sweet  is  thy  voice. 
And  thy  countenance  is  comely." 


206  LYKIC  POETRY  OF  21JE  BIBLE 


Voices  of  the  Brothers  {heard  interrupting) 

"Take  us  the  foxes, 

"The  little  foxes  that  spoil  the  vineyards; 

"  For  our  vineyards  are  in  blossom." 


REFRAINS 

My  beloved  is  }?nne,  and  I  am  his: 
He  feedeth  his  Jiock  among  the  lilies. 

Until  the  day  break,  and  the  shadows  Jlee  arvay. 

Turn,  my  beloved,  and  be  thou  like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart 

Upon  the  mountains  of  separation. 


Her  happy  Dream  of  seeking  him  abroad  and  finding  him 

By  night,  on  my  bed, 

I  sought  him  whom  my  soul  loveth  : 
I  sought  him,  but  I  found  him  not. 

I  said,  I  will  rise  now,  and  go  about  the  city, 

In  the  streets  and  in  the  broad  ways, 

1  will  seek  him  whom  my  soul  loveth : 
I  sought  him,  but  I  found  him  not. 

The  watchmen  that  go  about  the  city  found  me : 

To  whom  I  said.  Saw  ye  him  whom  my  soul  loveth? 

It  was  but  a  little  that  I  passed  from  them, 
When  I  found  him  whom  my  soul  loveth : 
I  held  him,  and  would  not  let  him  go. 

Until  I  had  brought  him  into  my  mother's  house, 

And  into  the  chamber  of  her  that  conceived  me. 


REFRAm 

I  adjure  you,  0  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 
By  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  the  field, 
7  hat  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love. 
Until  it  please. 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S   SONG'  207 

Idyl  III  iii.  e-v.  i 

THE   DAY   OF   BETROTHAL 

I 
King  Solomon  comes  in  State 

Reciting  Chorus 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  up  out  of  the  wilderness 

Like  pillars  of  smoke, 

Perfumed  with  myrrh  and  frankincense, 

With  all  powders  of  the  merchant? 

Behold,  it  is  the  litter  of  Solomon; 

Threescore  mighty  men  are  about  it, 

Of  the  mighty  men  of  Israel. 

They  all  handle  the  sword,  and  are  expert  in  war: 

Every  man  hath  his  sword  upon  his  thigh. 

Because  of  fear  in  the  night. 

King  Solomon  made  himself  a  palanquin 

Of  the  wood  of  Lebanon. 

He  made  the  pillars  thereof  of  silver. 

The  bottom  thereof  of  gold, 

The  seat  of  it  of  purple, 

The  midst  thereof  being  inlaid  with  love  from  the  daughters  of 
Jerusalem. 
Go  forth,  O  ye  daughters  of  Zion,  and  behold  King  Solomon, 
With  the  crown  wherewith  his  mother  hath  crowned  him 
In  the  day  of  his  espousals. 
And  in  the  day  of  the  gladness  of  his  heart. 

2 

King  Solomon  pours  forth  his  love  to  the  Shulammite  damsel 

King  Solomon 

Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  love;   behold,  thou  art  fair; 
Thine  eyes  are  as  doves  behind  thy  veil : 
Thy  hair  is  as  a  flock  of  goats, 


208  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

That  lie  along  the  side  of  Mount  Gilead. 
Thy  teeth  are  like  a  flock  of  ewes  that  are  newly  shorn, 

Which  are  come  up  from  the  washing; 

Whereof  every  one  hath  twins, 

And  none  is  bereaved  among  them. 
Thy  lips  are  like  a  thread  of  scarlet, 
And  thy  mouth  is  comely. 
Thy  temples  are  like  a  piece  of  a  pomegranate 

Behind  thy  veil. 
Thy  neck  is  like  the  tower  of  David  builded  for  an  armoury, 

Whereon  there  hang  a  thousand  bucklers. 

All  the  shields  of  the  mighty  men. 
Thy  two  breasts  are  like  two  fawns  that  are  twins  of  a  roe, 

Which  feed  among  the  lilies. 

REFRAIN 

Until  the  day  break,  and  the  shadozvs  flee  away, 
I  will  get  me  to  the  mountain  of  myrrh. 
And  to  the  hill  of  frankincense. 


King  Solomon  (under  the  symbolic  expression  of  an  enclosed  garden)  proposes  marriage 
to  the  Shulammite  damsel,  and  she  (using  the  same  symbolism)  accepts 

King  Solomon 

Thou  art  all  fair,  my  love; 

And  there  is  no  spot  in  thee. 

Come  with  me  from  Lebanon,  my  bride, 

With  me  from  Lebanon : 

Go  from  the  top  of  Amana, 

From  the  top  of  Senir  and  Hermon, 

From  the  lions'  dens. 

From  the  mountains  of  the  leopards. 
Thou  hast  ravished  my  heart,  my  sister,  my  bride; 
Thou  hast  ravished  my  heart 

With  one  look  from  thine  eyes. 

With  one  chain  of  thy  neck. 
I  low  fair  is  thy  love,  my  sister,  my  bride  ! 


LYRIC  IDYL:    '  SOLOMON'S  SONG'  209 

How  much  better  is  thy  love  than  wine  ! 

And  the  smell  of  thine  ointments  than  all  manner  of  spices ! 
Thy  lips,  O  my  bride,  drop  as  the  honeycomb  : 

Honey  and  milk  are  under  thy  tongue;  '  \^^t' 

And  the  smell  of  thy  garments  is  like  the  smell  of  Lebanon. 

A  garden  shut  up  is  my  sister,  my  bride; 

A  spring  shut  up, 

A  fountain  sealed. 
Thy  shoots  are  an  orchard  of  pomegranates. 

With  precious  fruits; 

Henna  with  spikenard  plants. 

Spikenard  and  saffron. 

Calamus  and  cinnamon,  with  all  trees  of  frankincense, 

Myrrh  and  aloes,  with  all  the  chief  spices. 
Thou  art  a  fountain  "of  gardens, 

A  well  of  living  waters. 

And  flowing  streams  from  Lebanon. 

The  Shulammite 

Awake,  O  north  wind;    and  come,  thou  south; 

Blow  upon  my  garden,  that  the  spices  thereof  may  flow  out. 

Let  my  beloved  come  into  his  garden. 

And  eat  his  precious  fruits. 

King  Solomon 

I  am  come  into  my  garden,  my  sister,  my  bride : 
I  have  gathered  my  myrrh  with  my  spice; 
I  have  eaten  my  honeycomb  with  my  honey; 
I  have  drunk  my  wine  with  my  milk. 

Reciting  Chorus 
Eat,  O  friends; 
Drink,  yea,  drink  abundantly  of  love  ! 


210  LYRIC  POETRY   OF   THE  BIBLE 

V.  2-vi.  3  Idyl   IV 

THE    bride's    troubled    DREAM 

Her  troubled  Dream  that  her  beloved  came  to  her  at  night,  and  by  a  moment's  delay 

she  lost  him 

The  Bride  • 

I  was  asleep,  but  my  heart  waked : 

It  is  the  voice  of  my  beloved  that  knocketh,  saying, 

"Open  to  me, 

My  sister,  my  love, 

My  dove,  my  undefiled :  . 
For  my  head  is  filled  with  dew, 
My  locks  with  the  drops  of  the  night." 

I  have  put  off  my  coat;   how  shall  I  put  it  on? 
I  have  washed  my  feet;   how  shall  I  defile  them? 

My  beloved  put  in  his  hand  by  the  hole  of  the  door. 

And  my  heart  was  moved  for  him. 

I  rose  up  to  open  to  my  beloved; 

And  my  hands  dropped  with  myrrh. 

And  my  fingers  with  liquid  myrrh, 

Upon  the  handles  of  the  bolt. 

I  opened  to  my  beloved ;  ' 

But  my  beloved  had  withdrawn  himself  and  was  gone. 

My  soul  had  failed  me  when  he  spake : 

I  sought  him,  but  I  could  not  find  him; 

I  called  him,  but  he  gave  me  no  answer. 

The  watchmen  that  go  about  the  city  found  me, 

They  smote  me,  they  wounded  me; 

The  keepers  of  the  walls  took  away  my  veil  from  me. 

(In  her  Dream  she  finds  herself  accosting  a  Chorus  of  Daughters  of  Jerusalem) 

I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 

If  ye  find  my  beloved. 
That  ye  tell  him,  that  I  am  sick  of  love. 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  211 


Chorus 

What  is  thy  beloved  more  than  another  beloved, 

O  thou  fairest  among  women? 
What  is  thy  beloved  more  than  another  beloved, 

That  thou  dost  so  adjure  us? 

The  Bride 

My  beloved  is  white  and  ruddy. 
The  chiefest  among  ten  thousand. 

His  head  is  as  the  most  fine  gold, 

His  locks  are  bushy,  and  black  as  a  raven. 

His  eyes  are  hke  doves  beside  the  water  brooks; 

Washed  with  milk,  and  fitly  set. 

His  cheeks  are  as  a  bed  of  spices,  as  banks  of  sweet  herbs  : 

His  lips  are  as  lilies,  dropping  liquid  myrrh. 

His  hands  are  as  rings  of  gold  set  with  beryl : 

His  body  is  as  ivory  work  overlaid  with  sapphires. 

His  legs  are  as  pillars  of  marble,  set  upon  sockets  of  fine  gold ; 

His  aspect  is  like  Lebanon,  excellent  as  the  cedars. 

His  mouth  is  most  sweet :  yea,  he  is  altogether  lovely. 
This  is  my  beloved,  and  this  is  my  friend, 

0  daughters  of  Jerusalem. 

Chorus 

Whither  is  thy  beloved  gone, 

O  thou  fairest  among  women? 
Whither  hath  thy  beloved  turned  him, 

That  we  may  seek  him  with  thee? 

The  Bride 

My  beloved  is  gone  down  to  his  garden. 

To  the  beds  of  spices. 
To  feed  in  the  gardens, 

And  to  gather  lilies. 

REFRAIN 

1  am  my  beloved's,  a7id  my  beloved  is  mine  ■' 
He  feedeth  hisjlock  among  the  lilies. 


212  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Idyl  V 

vi.  4-vii.  9  THE   KING'S   MEDITATION   ON   HIS   BRIDE 

I 

The  King  muses  on  her  Beauty 

The  King 

Thou  art  beautiful,  O  my  love,  as  Tirzah, 

Comely  as  Jerusalem, 

Terrible  as  an  army  with  banners. 
Turn  away  thine  eyes  from  me, 
For  they  have  overcome  me. 
Thy  hair  is  as  a  flock  of  goats 

That  lie  along  the  side  of  Gilead. 
Thy  teeth  are  like  a  flock  of  ewes. 

Which  are  come  up  from  the  washing; 

Whereof  every  one  hath  twins. 

And  none  is  bereaved  among  them. 
Thy  temples  are  like  a  piece  of  a  pomegranate 

Behind  thy  veil. 
There  are  threescore  queens, 

And  fourscore  concubines, 

And  virgins  without  number  : 
My  dove,  my  undefiled,  is  but  one; 

She  is  the  only  one  of  her  mother; 

She  is  the  pure  one  of  her  that  bare  her. 
The  daughters  saw  her,  and  called  her  blessed; 
Yea,  the  queens  and  the  concubines,  and  they  praised  her. 


The  Surprise  of  the  first  meeting.    A  dramatised  Reminiscence 

"The  Royal  Party 

"  Who  is  she  that  looketh  forth  as  the  morning, 

"  Fair  as  the  moon, 

"  Pure  as  the  sun, 

"Terrible  as  an  army  with  banners?" 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  213 


"The  Shulammite 

"  I  went  down  into  the  garden  of  nuts, 

"  To  see  the  green  plants  of  the  valley, 

"  To  see  whether  the  vine  budded, 

"  And  the  pomegranates  were  in  flower. 

"  Or  ever  I  was  aware,  my  soul  set  me 

"Among  the  chariots  of  my  princely  people." 

"The  Royal  Party 

"  Return,  return,  O  Shulammite; 

"  Return,  return,  that  we  may  look  upon  thee." 

"The  Shulammite 

"  Why  will  ye  look  upon  the  Shulammite, 
"As  upon  the  dance  of  Mahanaim?" 


3 

The  King  continues  to  muse  upon  his  Bride's  Beauty 

The  King 

How  beautiful  are  thy  feet  in  sandals,  O  prince's  daughter ! 

The  joints  of  thy  thighs  are  like  jewels. 

The  work  of  the  hands  of  a  cunning  workman. 

Thy  navel  is  like  a  round  goblet. 

Wherein  no  mingled  wine  is  wanting : 
Thy  belly  is  like  an  heap  of  wheat 

Set  about  with  lilies. 
Thy  two  breasts  are  like  two  fawns  that  are  twins  of  a  roe. 
Thy  neck  is  like  the  tower  of  ivory; 

Thine  eyes  as  the  pools  in  Heshbon,  by  the  gate  of  Bath-rabbim; 
Thy  nose  is  like  the  tower  of  Lebanon  which  looketh  toward  Damascus. 
Thine  head  upon  thee  is  like  Carmel, 
And  the  hair  of  thine  head  like  purple; 
The  king  is  held  captive  in  the  tresses  thereof. 
How  fair  and  how  pleasant  art  thou, 
O  love,  for  delights ! 


214  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

This  thy  stature  is  like  to  a  palm  tree. 

And  thy  breasts  to  clusters  of  grapes. 

I  said,  I  «~ill  climb  up  into  the  palm  tree, 

I  will  take  hold  of  the  branches  thereof: 

Let  thy  breasts  be  as  clusters  of  the  \~ine. 

And  the  smell  of  thy  breath  like  apples; 

And  thy  mouth  like  the  best  wine. 

That  goeth  down  anoothly  for  my  beloved. 

Gliding  through  the  lips  of  those  that  are  asleep. 


REFRAIH 

I  am  my  belovetTs, 

And  his  disire  is  imoardme. 


▼ii.  lo-viii.  4  IdyL  VI 


THE   BRTOE  5   LONGING   FOR   HER   HOXIE   OX    LERAXOX 


The  Bride 

Come,  my  beloved,  let  us  go  forth  into  the  field; 

Let  us  lodge  in  the  villages. 

Let  us  get  up  early  to  the  vineyards; 

Let  us  see  whether  the  vine  hath  budded. 

And  the  tender  grape  appear. 

And  the  pomegranates  be  in  flower : 
There  will  I  give  thee  my  love. 
The  mandrakes  give  forth  fragrance. 
And  at  our  doors  are  all  manner  of  precious  fruits. 

New  and  old. 

Which  I  have  laid  up  for  thee,  O  my  beloved. 


LYRIC  IDYL:    'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  215 

Oh,  that  thou  wert  as  my  brother, 

That  sucked  the  breasts  of  my  mother ! 

When  I  should  find  thee  without,  I  would  kiss  thee; 

Yea,  and  none  would  despise  me. 

I  would  lead  thee,  and  bring  thee  into  my  mother's  house, 

That  thou  mightest  instruct  me. 
I  would  cause  thee  to  drink  of  spiced  wine. 

Of  the  juice  of  my  pomegranate. 

His  left  hand  should  be  under  my  head, 

And  his  right  hand  should  embrace  me. 

Refrain 

L  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  yerusalem, 
That  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love., 
Until  it  please. 


Idyl  VII  viii.  5-14 


THE   RENEWAL   OF   LOVE   IN   THE   VINEYARD   OF   LEBANON 


The  arrival 

Reciting  Chorus 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  up  from  the  wilderness. 
Leaning  upon  her  beloved? 

King  Solomon 

Under  the  apple  tree  I  awakened  thee : 
There  thy  mother  was  in  travail  with  thee, 
There  was  she  in  travail  that  brought  thee  forth. 


216  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE   BIBLE 

The  Bride 

Set  me  as  a  seal  upon  thine  heart, 

As  a  seal  upon  thine  arm : 
For  love  is  strong  as  death; 

Jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave : 
The  flashes  thereof  are  flashes  of  fire, 

A  very  flame  of  the  Lord. 
Many  waters  cannot  quench  love, 

Neither  can  the  floods  drown  it  : 
If  a  man  would  give  all  the  substance  of  his  house  for  love, 

It  would  utterly  be  contemned. 


The  Bride  recalls  the  riddling  speeches  of  her  Brothers  when  she  was  a  child :  she 
understands  them  now 

The  Bride 

"  We  have  a  little  sister, 

"  And  she  hath  no  breasts : 

"  What  shall  we  do  for  our  sister 

"  In  the  day  when  she  shall  be  spoken  for? 

"  If  she  be  a  wall, 

"  We  will  build  upon  her  a  turret  of  silver : 

"  And  if  she  be  a  door, 

"  We  will  inclose  her  with  boards  of  cedar." 
I  was  a  wall,  and  my  breasts  like  the  towers  thereof: 
Then  was  I  in  his  eyes  as  one  that  found  peace. 


The  Bride  renews  her  vows  to  her  husband  in  this  the  home  of  her  childhood:  Solomon 
shall  be  the  landlord  of  her  heart  as  he  is  the  landlord  of  her  home 

The  Bride 

Solomon  had  a  vineyard  at  Baal-hamon ; 

He  let  out  the  vineyard  unto  keepers; 

Everyone  for  the  fruit  thereof  was  to  bring  a  thousand  pieces  of  silver. 
My  vineyard,  which  is  mine,  is  I)efore  me : 

Thou,  ()  Solomon,  shalt  have  the  thousand, 

And  those  that  keep  the  fruit  thereof  two  hundred. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  217 

4 

The  Escort  heard  approaching  to  conduct  them  back  from  Lebanon :  a  final  embrace 

King  Solomon 

Thou  that  dwellest  in  the  gardens, 
The  companions  hearken  for  thy  voice : 
Cause  me  to  hear  it. 

The  Bride 

Make  haste,  my  beloved. 

And  be  thou  like  to  a  roe  or  to  a  young  hart 

Upon  the  mountains  of  spices. 


Book  Third 

BIBLICAL    HISTORY    AND    EPIC 


Chapter  Page 

IX.     Epic  Poetry  of  the  Bible 221 

X.     Biblical   History   in   its   Relations   with    Biblical 

Epic 244 


CHAPTER   IX 


EPIC    POETRY    OF    THE    BIBLE 


It  has  often  been  said  that  there  is  no  Epic  Poetry  in  the  Bible. 

This  opinion  seems  to  me  to  be  founded  on  a  double  mistake. 

In  part  it  is  a  relic  of  a  discarded  system  of  criti-   „^         .       ,« 
'^  ■'  The  question  of 

cism  that  did  much  to  distort  the  study  of  literature,  Epic  Poetry  in 
and  at  one  time  went  to  the  extent  of  pronouncing  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
Shakespeare  no  dramatist :  —  the  criticism  which  assumed  the 
masterpieces  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  to  be  the  only  literary 
standards.  Of  course,  those  who  have  formed  their  conception 
of  Epic  solely  on  the  I/ia^/  and  Odyssey  will  look  in  vain  for  poems 
resembling  these  in  the  Bible.  Again,  in  many  minds  epic  poetry 
is  associated  with  fiction ;  and  to  classify  any  portion  of  Sacred 
Scripture  as  epic  will  to  such  persons  appear  a  mode  of  saying 
that  it  is  untrue.  But  this  is  an  entire  misapprehension  of  the 
term.  It  is  one  thing  to  say  that  creative  poetry  is  not,  like  his- 
tory and  philosophy,  tied  to  reality  ;  it  is  quite  another  thing  to 
say  that  its  matter  may  not  be  real.  Creative  poetry-is  a  treatment 
which  can  be  applied  alike  to  fact,  to  idealised  fact,  and  to  purely 
imaginative  matter. 

In  our  examination  of  fundamental  literary  forms,^  we  found  that 
the  term  *  Epic  '  implied  just  two  things  :  narrative,  in  contrast  with 
dramatic  presentation,  and  creative  treatment,  in  contradistinction 
to  discussion.  Now  more  than  half  the  Bible  consists  of  narrative. 
The  question,  then,  of  Epic  Poetry  in  the  Bible  narrows  itself  to 
this  :  whether  the  whole  of  Biblical  narrative  is  to  be  classified  as 

1  Above,  page  109. 
221 


222  BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AXD   EPIC 

history,  or  does  any  part  of  it  make  just  that  appeal  to  our  emo- 
tions and  artistic  sense  which  is  made  by  the  epic  poems  of  secular 
literature  ? 

Let  a  reader  set  himself  to  read  continuously  the  Book  of  Gene- 
sis.    He  wiU  feel  that  diflerent  parts  of  what  he  is  reading  affect 
his  literary  sense  in  different  ways.     At  one  time 
of  Epic  and  His-     ^^  ^^^^^  himself  traversing  long  genealogical  hsts, 
tory  iUustrated      or  noting  brief  accounts  of  migrations ;  he  moves 

from  Genesis  ,  ,  .      •  r  .  •  •  r 

through  generations  or  centunes  of  time  m  a  few 

verses.  He  reaches  (suppose)  the  name  of  Joseph  :  and  at  once 
all  is  changed.  Ten  lengthy  chapters — in  bulk  equal  to  one-fifth 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Genesis  —  centre  around  this  one  man  and 
his  relations  n^th  his  brethren.  From  the  beginning  a  striking 
personality  begins  to  emerge,  which  even  in  childhood  divides  the 
household  between  envy  and  doting  affection,  which  makes  itself 
felt  in  capti\-ity  and  even  in  prison.  In  the  background  we  get 
gUmpses  of  varied  life  —  scattered  settlements  of  shepherds,  mer- 
chant caravans,  palace  life  in  the  empire  of  Egypt.  Mutation  of 
fortune,  which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  story,  is  represented  by  the 
change  which  in  a  single  day  takes  Joseph  from  prison  to  set  him 
next  to  the  throne ;  and  throughout  the  movement  of  events  the 
supernatural  interest  of  dreams  and  their  mystical  revelations  has 
been  hovering.  When  among  the  crowds  that  come  from  distant 
lands  to  ask  corn  from  this  Eg>T)tian  potentate  Joseph's  own 
brethren  stand  before  him,  recognised  but  not  recognising,  then 
we  have  just  one  of  those  ironic  situations  which  make  the  master- 
strokes of  plot.  And  no  invented  plot  could  draw  more  out  of 
such  a  situation  than  we  get  in  this  piece  of  history,  with  the  long- 
sustained  perplexities  in  which  the  Egj^ptian  minister  involves  his 
family,  not  for  the  purpose  of  some  subtle  revenge,  but  to  prolong 
the  strange  situation  in  which  he  finds  himself  placed,  and  the 
conflict  of  emotions  in  his  breast  between  natural  affection  and 
sense  of  wrong.  At  last  Joseph  breaks  down  in  the  part  he  is 
plapng,  and  has  to  sob  out  that  he  is  their  brother ;  and  when 
the  excitement  has  had  time  to  subside,  the  train  of  events  settles 


EPIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE  111 

to  a  sedate  conclusion  in  the  picturesque  migration  of  tlie  sons 
of  Israel  into  Egypt,  and  the  patriarchal  blessing  bestowed  on 
Pharaoh  himself.  We  continue  our  reading,  and  find  ourselves 
tracing,  in  bare  outline,  economic  changes  comprised  in  a  verse 
or  two  which  needed  generations  of  time  to  be  accomplished  in 
fact.  It  is  impossible  for  any  one,  reading  with  his  literary  sense 
awakened,  not  to  feel  the  difference  of  kind  between  the  account 
of  Joseph  and  his  Brethren  and  other  portions  of  the  Book  of 
Genesis  preceding  and  following  it :  this  is  the  difference  between 
Epic  and  History.  Joseph,  it  is  true,  is  an  important  historic 
personage,  and  it  is  no  novel  that  we  have  been  reviewing.  But  a 
single  chapter  would  have  been  sufficient  to  present  the  sons  of 
Jacob  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  history ;  what  more  there  is  in  the 
narrative  must  be  credited  to  interest  of  story.  The  exact  classi- 
fication of  this  portion  of  Genesis  is  expressed  by  the  term  '  Epic 
Incident ' ;  it  is  an  Incident  because  it  is  a  portion  of  the  history ; 
it  is  Epic  because  the  treatment  of  it  touches  the  imagination  and 
emotions  in  the  regular  way  of  creative  poetry. 

The  historical  books  of  the  Bible  are  full  of  such  Epic  Inci- 
dents. But  they  are  merged  in  the  history  of  which  they  are  a 
pjirt,  without  anything  to  mark  them  off  from  the  surrounding 
matter  which  is  purely  historic.  I  must  not  be  thought  to  insist 
upon  trifles  if  I  recommend  the  student  —  with  the  aid  of  the 
Tables  in  the  Appendix  to  this  work,^  or  otherwise  —  to  pencil  off 
in  his  Revised  Version  the  epic  matter,  and  to  write  in  the  margin 
a  title  to  each  portion.  I  believe  that  an  important  factor  in  lit- 
erary appreciation  is  the  expectant  attitude  of  the  reader ;  and 
one  who  has,  in  the  way  I  suggest,  adjusted  his  mental  focus  from 
the  outset,  will  be  in  a  specially  favourable  situation  for  feeling  the 
epic  richness  of  Sacred  Scripture. 

When  we  turn  to  survey  the  field  of  Biblical  Epic,  one  phenom- 
enon attracts  our  attention  at  once,  as  being  unique,   u,,  verse  Epic  in 
yet  not  difficult  to  understand.     In  secular  litera-   the  Bible 
ture  the  most  famous  epics  are  in  verse.     In  the  Bible  there  is  no 

1  Tables  II,  III. 


224  BIBLICAL   HISTORY  A. YD  EPIC 

verse  narrative.^  But  we  have  seen  that  the  distinction  of  prose 
and  verse  is  not  at  all  coincident  with  the  distinction  between 
poetry  and  its  antithesis.  Again,  we  have  seen  that  it  is  one  of 
the  distinguishing  features  of  Hebrew  that  its  verse  and  prose  sys- 
tems overlap.  \Mien  these  two  considerations  are  put  together,  it 
will  appear  a  natural  thing  that  the  epic  incidents  which  are  scat- 
tered through  the  historical  books  should  gravitate  to  the  literary 
form  of  the  histor}-  in  which  they  constitute  a  minor  part. 

But  though  the  Bible  has  no  Verse  Epic,  it  contains  illustrations 

of  the  interesting  literary  form  that  may  be  called  the  MLxed 

Epic,  in  which  a  stor)-  is  conveyed  in  prose,  but 

has  the  power  of  breaking  into  verse  at  suitable 

points.^     The  grand  example  of  this  Mixed  Epic  is  the  Stor}*  of 

Balaam. 

The  Old  Testament  is  specially  interesting  where  it  lifts  the  veil 

which  separates  the  Chosen  People  from  the  rest  of  the  world, 

and  allows  us  to  see  worshippers  of  Jehovah  out- 

The  story  of  .,       ,  ,         /-t  ,-u  tii 

Balaam  Side  the  ranks  of  the  Israelites,     buch  was  Balaam, 

numbers  xxii-  gut  he  seems  to  have  been  a  light  shining  in  a 
dark  place  :  surrounded  by  those  who  could  not 
understand  the  worship  of  an  in\-isible  God.  yet  felt  the  atmos- 
phere of  spiritual  power  that  Balaam  carried  about  with  him,  and 
came  to  look  upon  it  with  awe,  as  a  thing  to  be  dreaded  or  to  be 
secured  on  their  own  side.  Such  a  conception  of  Balaam  had 
be^n  formed  by  Balak.  king  of  Moab  :  *"  I  know  that  he  whom  thou 
blessest  is  blessed,  and  he  whom  thou  cursest  is  cursed."  He 
bethinks  him  of  the  prophet  when  confronted  with  a  new  danger 
threatening  his  kingdom  :  danger  from  a  people  moving  through 
the  desert  at  once  prolific  and  highly  organised,  threatening  to 
swallow  up  the  Moabites  "as  the  ox  hcketh  up  the  grass  of  the 

*  Of  course,  in  the  lyric  narratives  of  Chapter  V  the  narratiTe  is  not  being  told 
or  conveyed,  but  assumed  and  meditated  on. 

*  In  early  literature  of  story  this  form  had  a  wide  range.  See  a  note  on  the 
'  cantifables '  in  Mr.  Jacobs's  En^lLsi  Fatry  Tales,  page  240.  In  modem  poetr>-  this 
form  is  admirably  represented  by  William  Morris's  Roots  of  the  Mountavts  and 
House  of  the  Woljbigs. 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE  225 

field."  So  Balak  sends  an  embassy  of  princes  to  Balaam,  "with 
the  rewards  of  divination  in  their  hand."  The  central  interest 
of  this,  as  of  most  epics,  is  the  personality  of  its  hero.  The  char- 
acter of  Balaam  seems  to  be  summed  up  in  calling  him  a  man  of 
compromise  in  spiritual  matters.  Perfecdy  sincere  in  his  worship 
of  Jehovah,  he  nevertheless  desires  to  keep  in  touch  with  those 
who  can  only  translate  his  spiritual  religion  into  gross  and  material 
conceptions.  He  has  laid  down  for  himself  a  compromise  :  he 
will  never  be  unfaithful  to  a  distinct  Divine  word,  —  and  in  fact  to 
this  he  never  is  unfaithful,  —  but  where  not  prohibited  he  will  go  as 
far  as  he  can  with  the  world  about  him,  and  make  all  he  can  out 
of  them.  This  is  the  man  to  whom  the  embassy  of  Balak  comes. 
He  lodges  the  Moabite  princes  with  oriental  hospitality ;  and  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night  he  gives  himself  up  to  the  spiritual  influ- 
ences from  which  he  is  wont  to  seek  guidance.  The  revelation 
comes,  apparently  in  the  form  of  dream ;  and  on  the  morrow 
Balaam  dismisses  his  visitors  without  hesitation  :  his  God  will  not 
suffer  him  to  obey  the  summons. 

To  Balak  all  this  seems  no  more  than  a  diviner's  artifice  to 
increase  his  consequence.  He  accordingly  sends  a  second  em- 
bassy, more  princes  and  more  honourable,  with  an  urgent  message 
and  unbounded  offers.  Balaam  receives  this  second  embassy  with 
noble  words,  which  his  subsequent  conduct  showed  to  be  no  idle 
boast :  "  If  Balak  would  give  me  his  house  full  of  silver  and  gold, 
I  cannot  go  beyond  the  word  of  the  Lord  my  God,  to  do  less  or 
more."  But  he  lodges  the  ambassadors  for  the  night.  Whether 
or  not  his  spirit  was  clouded  by  the  prospects  held  out  to  him, 
the  revelation  of  that  night's  dream  appeared  to  wear  an  air  of 
compromise  :  he  would  accompany  the  embassy,  but  with  the 
distinct  understanding  that  he  should  speak  only  as  his  God 
should  direct  him. 

So  we  have  the  famous  journey  of  Balaam  to  Moab.  Mystic 
hindrances  stop  his  way,  until  he  would  fain  turn  back.  But  from 
the  lips  of  the  angel  he  receives  the  words  of  his  own  compromise  : 
he  must  go,  but  speak  only  as  he  is  bidden.     At  a  border  city  the 


226  BIBLICAL   II I  STORY  AND   EPIC 

king  of  Moab  meets  the  prophet,  and  chides  him  for  his  delay. 
But  Balaam  is  strong  in  the  line  of  action  he  has  laid  down  for 
himself:  "  Lo,  I  am  come  unto  thee:  have  I  now  any  power  at 
all  to  speak  anything?  the  word  that  God  putteth  in  my  mouth 
that  shall  I  speak."  Nevertheless  he  will  go  as  far  as  he  can  : 
by  his  direction  the  preliminary  ritual  is  commenced,  the  seven 
altars  erected,  and  the  seven  bullocks  and  rams  offered  in  due 
form  by  the  princes  of  Moab.  Balaam  himself  ascends  "  a  bare 
height "  to  be  alone  in  communion  with  his  God,  while  the  king 
and  princes  stand  by  the  altars  ;  and  from  the  high  ground  where 
all  this  is  taking  place  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  encampment  is  visible  in  the  desert  below.  Amid  the  influ- 
ences of  the  solitude  and  the  spectacle  beneath  him  Balaam  feels 
the  rush  of  inspiration  coming  upon  him ;  in  the  simple  phrase 
of  Scripture,  God  "  put  a  word  in  his  mouth."  He  returns  to 
confront  the  king  and  princes ;  and  at  this  point  the  prose  of 
narrative  gives  place  to  the  rhythmic  verse  which  is  to  convey  the 
Divine  message. 

From  Aram  hath  Balak  brought  me, 

The  king  of  Moab  from  the  mountains  of  the  East : 

"  Come,  curse  me  Jacob, 

And  come,  defy  Israel." 

How  shall  I  curse,  whom  God  hath  not  cursed? 

And  how  shall  I  defy,  whom  the  Lord  hath  not  defied? 

For  from  the  top  of  the  rocks  I  see  him, 

And  from  the  hills  I  behold  him : 

Lo,  it  is  a  people  that  dwell  alone, 

And  shall  not  be  reckoned  among  the  nations. 

Who  can  count  the  dust  of  Jacob, 

Or  number  the  fourth  part  of  Israel? 

Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous, 

And  let  my  last  end  be  like  his ! 

The  king  and  princes  are  overwhelmed  with  confusion :  the 
prophet  summoned  to  curse  has  altogether  blessed  the  enemy  ! 
But  Balaam  calmly  answers,  "  Must  I  not  take  heed  to  speak  that 
which  the  Lord  putteth  in  my  mouth?" 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE  227 

To  Balak  only  one  explanation  seems  possible  :  the  prophet  in 
his  ecstatic  state  has  been  overawed  by  the  vastness  of  the  enemy's 
forces.  The  desired  end  must  be  secured  by  cunning.  Balaam 
shall  be  taken  to  a  point  from  which  only  a  corner  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  camp  is  visible  ;  enough,  according  to  magic  lore,  to  lodge 
a  curse  upon,  but  too  small  to  affect  the  beholder's  nerves.  The 
man  of  compromise  goes  as  far  as  he  can  with  popular  supersti- 
tion; he  accompanies  the  king  and  his  suite  to  the  heights  of 
Pisgah,  he  gives  orders  for  the  renewal  of  the  sacrifices,  and  him- 
self goes  apart,  with  some  faint  idea  of  persuading  Jehovah  into 
returning  an  oracle  in  conformity  with  his  prophet's  material 
interests.  But  no  sooner  is  Balaam  alone  with  his  God  than  the 
unreaUty  of  the  whole  proceeding  makes  itself  felt  by  him ;  his 
soul  is  strung  up  to  its  true  level  as  he  returns  to  face  the  Moa- 
bites.     A  second  time  the  poem  breaks  from  prose  into  verse. 

Rise  up,  Balak,  and  hear; 

Hearken  unto  me,  thou  son  of  Zippor : 

God  is  not  a  man,  that  he  should  lie; 

Neither  the  son  of  man,  that  he  should  repent: 

Hath  he  said,  and  shall  he  not  do  it? 

Or  hath  he  spoken,  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good? 

Behold,  I  have  received  commandment  to  bless : 

And  he  hath  blessed,  and  I  cannot  reverse  it. 

He  hath  not  beheld  iniquity  in  Jacob, 

Neither  hath  he  seen  perverseness  in  Israel ; 

The  Lord  his  God  is  with  him, 

And  the  shout  of  a  king  is  among  them. 

God  bringeth  them  forth  out  of  Egypt; 

He  hath  as  it  were  the  strength  of  the  wild-ox. 

Surely  there  is  no  enchantment  against  Jacob, 

Neither  is  there  any  divination  against  Israel: 

At  the  due  season  shall  it  be  said  of  Jacob  and  of  Israel, 

What  hath  God  wrought ! 

Behold,  the  people  riseth  up  as  a  lioness. 

And  as  a  lion  doth  he  lift  himself  up: 

He  shall  not  lie  down  until  he  eat  of  the  prey. 

And  drink  the  blood  of  the  sl^in. 


22S  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND   EPIC 

"  Neither  curse  them  at  aU,  nor  bless  them  at  all ! "     But  Balaam 
has  only  one  answer :  all  that  the  Lord  speaketh  he  must  do. 

At  all  hazards  another  attempt  must  be  made.  Even  Balak  has 
begun  to  understand  that  there  is  some  real  power  restraining 
Balaam  ;  but  if  the  prophet  will  accompany  him  to  a  third  point 
of  view,  "  peradventure  it  will  please  God  "  that  the  enemy  shall 
be  cursed  from  thence.  The  instinct  of  compromise  carries 
Balaam  to  this  third  ceremony,  but  he  has  no  heart  to  play  his 
ignoble  part  to  its  conclusion.  He  does  not,  as  before,  go  aside 
to  meditate  his  answer,  but  listlessly  turns  his  face  towards  the 
wilderness.  It  happens  that  from  where  he  is  standing  his  eye 
just  catches  the  long  lines  of  tents  stretching,  row  after  row,  with 
the  regularity  that  distinguished  the  highly  organised  Israelites 
from  the  tumultuous  hordes  of  desert  nomads.  The  divine  prin- 
ciple of  order  sinks  deep  in  Balaam's  soul,  and  inspires  his  song 
as  he  turns' to  face  for  a  third  time  the  king  and  princes  of  Moab. 

Balaam  the  son  of  Beor  saith. 
And  the  man  whose  eye  ia  opened  saith : 
He  saith,  which  heareth  the  words  of  God, 
Which  seeth  the  vision  of  the  Almighty, 
Falling  down,  and  having  his  eyes  open : 

How  goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob, 

Thy  tabernacles,  O  Israel ! 

As  valleys  are  they  spread  forth. 

As  gardens  by  the  river  side, 

As  lign-aloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted. 

As  cedar  trees  beside  the  waters. 

Water  shall  flow  from  his  backets. 

And  his  seed  shall  be  in  many  waters. 

And  his  king  shall  be  higher  than  Agag, 

And  his  kingdom  shall  be  exalted. 

God  bringeth  him  forth  out  of  Egypt; 

He  hath  as  it  were  the  strength  of  the  wild-ox : 

He  shall  eat  up  the  nations  his  adversaries. 

And  shall  break  their  bones  in  pieces. 

And  smite  them  through  with  his  arrows. 

He  coached,  he  lay  down  as  a  lion. 


EPIC  POETRY   OF   THE  BIBLE  229 

And  as  a  lioness;   who  shall  rouse  him  up? 
Blessed  be  every  one  that  blesseth  thee, 
And  cursed  be  every  one  that  curseth  thee. 

The  Moabite  king  storms  with  rage  and  disappointment,  and  dis- 
misses the  prophet  with  a  sneer :  "  The  Lord  hath  kept  thee  back 
from  honour."  But  instead  of  quaihng  before  the  royal  indigna- 
tion, Balaam  forces  Balak  to  endure  another  outpouring  of  pro- 
phetic inspiration,  as  he  beholds  a  star  arising  out  of  Jacob,  before 
which  Moab  shall  be  smitten,  and  the  sons  of  tumult  shall  be 
broken  down ;  his  eye  traverses  the  horizon  and  sees  one  people 
after  another  involved  in  the  coming  destruction ;  not  the  Kenites 
in  their  rocks,  nor  Amalek  first  of  nations,  shall  be  able  to  resist. 

Alas,  who  shall  live  when  God  doeth  this? 

Then  Balaam  returns  to  his  country,  and  the  Epic  of  Balaam  is 
concluded.  But  Balaam  does  not  disappear  from  the  history ;  and 
we  learn  how  the  man  of  compromise  was  caught  in  the  meshes 
of  his  o\vn  compromising  spirit.^  At  some  time  when  the  spiritual 
enlightenment  was  not  upon  him  he  brought  himself  to  give  the 
counsel  that  the  people,  who  were  too  strong  to  be  conquered  by 
force,  might  yet  be  undermined  by  lust.  Lustful  intercourse  led 
in  its  turn  to  war ;  and  the  name  of  Balaam  the  son  of  Beor 
appears  in  the  list  of  the  slain. 

Apart  from  the  question  of  prose  or  verse  as  its  medium  of 
expression,  Epic  Poetry  may  be  classified  accord- 

,  -  .  ,  0      T  Classification  of 

ing  to  degrees  of  organic  completeness.''  In  secu-  ^^^^  Poetry 
lar  literature  there  are,  from  this  point  of  view, 
three  forms  of  epic.  There  is  the  simple,  isolated  story,  usually 
called  a  '  Ballad.'  Then  there  is  the  '  Cycle  '  or  aggregation  of 
separate  stories  attributed  to  the  same  hero  :  an  Achilles  cycle,  or 
Ulysses  cycle.  Finally  there  is  the  weaving  of  a  multiplicity  of 
incident  into  one  organic  plot,  as  when  the  genius  of  an  individual 
poet  makes  out  of  the  Achilles  cycle  an  Iliad,  or  out  of  the  cycle 

1  Compare  Numbers  xxxi.  8,  Revelation  ii.  14. 

2  Compare  throughout  Table  III  in  Appendix  II, 


230  BIBLICAL    HISTORY  AND   EPIC 

of  Ulysses  an  Odyssey.     It  is  to  the  last  only  that  the  term  '  Epic ' 
is  usually  applied.     Biblical  Epic  exhibits  analogies  to  all  three 

types.     The  simple  independent  Story  is  exempli- 

(1)  Epic  stories       /    ,   ,  ,  •      -i  ,  c  r^  ■  j    «\^    , 

fied  by  such  an  mcident  as  that  of  Cam  and  Abel 

in  primitive  history,  or  in  later  history  by  the  Story  of  Gideon  or 

Tephthah.     Again,  great  part  of  Genesis  is  occupied 

(2)  Epic  Cycles  .  ,    ^     ,         ro      •  i  •  i  ^   , 

with  Cycles  of  Stories  attachmg  to  the  names  of  the 

great  patriarchs,  —  an  Abraham  cycle,  a  cycle  of  Jacob,  and  others. 

And   the  Story  of  Joseph  and   his  Brethren   has 

(3)  Epic  Histories      ,        ,     ,  i  •,,  1  1  x-.    • 

already  been  used  to  illustrate  the  complete  Epic 

History,  with  its  wide  reach  of  incidents  bound  together  into  one 
organic  whole. 

The  most  elaborate  of  these   Epic   Histories  is  the  Book  of 

Esther.  This,  in  addition  to  every  other  element 
Esther°°   °  °^  interest,  has  what  may  be  called  a  double  plot : 

two  distinct  trains  of  events,  centring  around 
Esther  herself  and  Mordecai  respectively,  are  woven  together  into 
a  complex  story.  The  opening  of  the  book  plunges  us  into  the 
life  and  manners  of  an  oriental  empire,  with  its  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  provinces  of  varying  races  and  speech,  its  government  by 
irresponsible  despotism,  and  its  court  etiquette,  the  violation  of 
which  is  punishable  with  death.  We  have  a  picture  of  festivities 
on  a  scale  proportionate  to  the  empire  itself — pageantry  lasting 
half  a  year,  and  for  climax  a  continuous  feast  of  seven  days.  The 
king's  drunken  impulse  to  send  for  Queen  Vashti  to  appear  before 
his  lords,  her  refusal  and  solemn  deposition  from  the  throne,  and 
the  elaborate  preparations  for  choosing  a  successor  which  end  in 
the  elevation  to  the  crown  of  a  Jewish  maiden  Esther,  are  detailed 
with  minuteness.  The  general  effect  of  this  introductory  part  is 
to  make  an  oriental  atmosphere  for  the  reader's  mind,  by  which  he 
is  the  better  able  to  appreciate  all  that  follows. 

The  movement  of  the  story  begins  with  the  mention  of  Haman. 
Despotism  is  never  so  despotic  as  when  it  takes  a  private  subject 
and  elevates  him  to  its  own  rank,  demanding  for  him,  by  no  title 
but  that  of  royal  favour,  the  homage  which  is  paid  to  the  king  by 


EPIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE  231 

prescriptive  right.  Such  elevation  was  accorded  by  Ahasuerus  to 
Haman  :  and  the  whole  empire  obediently  bowed  down.  A  single 
individual  was  found  to  resist :  the  Jew  Mordecai,  who  had  made 
his  kinswoman  and  adopted  daughter  a  queen,  but  for  himself  was 
content  to  watch  over  her  from  a  distance,  as  one  of  those  who 
sat  in  the  king's  gate.  Officials  of  the  court  sought  in  vain  to 
move  Mordecai,  and  at  last  had  to  make  his  stubborn  resistance 
known  to  Haman.  The  offended  favourite  "  thought  scorn  to  lay 
hands  on  Mordecai  himself" :  nothing  less  would  satisfy  his 
oriental  spirit  of  vengeance  than  to  destroy  the  whole  people  to 
which  Mordecai  belonged  throughout  the  empire  of  Ahasuerus. 
To  make  the  destruction  more  dramatic,  a  day  is  chosen  by  lot  for 
simultaneous  slaughter.  To  the  king  Haman  uses  two  arguments  : 
the  diversity  of  the  Jews  in  laws  and  customs  from  all  other  peo- 
ples, and  the  treasure  of. silver  he  will  himself  pay  into  the  king's 
treasury  if  his  petition  be  granted.  But  Haman  is  at  the  height 
of  favour  with  the  king,  who  bids  him  take  the  people  and  the 
silver  too.  The  complex  machinery  of  the  empire  is  set  in  motion, 
and  despatches  sent  in  every  direction.  Then,  we  are  told,  "  the 
king  and  Haman  sat  down  to  drink,  but  the  city  of  Shushan  was 
perplexed." 

We  have  been  following  one  side  of  the  story ;  but  the  other 
centre  of  interest,  Queen  Esther,  is  involved  in  the  conspiracy 
thus  set  on  foot ;  and  the  mourning  of  Mordecai  and  the  city  soon 
makes  the  Queen  aware  of  the  peril  hanging  over  her  people,  for 
whom  there  seems  to  be  no  help  but  through  herself.  There  is 
something  very  attractive  to  the  imagination  in  the  situation  in 
which  Esther  is  thus  placed.  The  strongest  and  most  mature 
of  men  will  feel  his  nature  tasked  to  its  depths  by  a  summons  to 
rest  his  life  and  all  upon  a  single  crisis.  But  such  a  summons 
comes  in  this  case  to  a  girl,  in  beauty  found  fairest  after  an  empire 
has  been  searched,  in  the  first  flush  of  her  youth,  with  Ufe  just 
opening  before  her  as  a  vista  of  softness  and  luxury.  Her  mo- 
mentary hesitation  only  makes  her  seem  more  human.  But  when 
the  extremity  of  the  crisis  is  urged  upon  her,  with  the  suggestion 


232  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

that  she  may  have  come  to  the  kingdom  for  such  a  time  as  this, 
she  nerves  herself  to  her  task.  First  she  gives  herself  up  to  fast- 
ing and  prayer ;  then,  with  all  signs  of  fear  suppressed,  she  pre- 
sents herself  in  full  splendour  of  beauty  and  royal  state  before  the 
king,  well  knowing  that  she  may  incur  thereby  the  penalty  of 
death.  For  a  moment  the  fate  of  her  nation  and  herself  trembles 
in  the  balance  :  then  the  sceptre  is  held  out  to  her  and  the  peril- 
ous moment  is  past.  Here  it  is  that  the  character  of  Esther 
begins  to  come  out.  It  might  well  have  been  expected  that,  in 
the  reaction  from  personal  danger,  Esther  might  have  at  once 
cast  herself  before  the  king,  and  with  sobs  and  cries  told  the  afflic- 
tion of  her  people.  This  is  probably  what  Mordecai  meant  her 
to  do.  But  a  girl  has  been  raised  up  to  save  her  people,  and  she 
must  do  it  in  her  own  girlish  way ;  and  accordingly,  when  she  is 
asked  her  petition  and  request  unto  the  half  of  the  kingdom,  the 
answer  reveals  no  court  intrigue,  but  a  simple  childlike  inntation 
that  the  king  and  Haman  may  come  to  a  banquet  that  she  will 
prepare.  Ahasuerus  is  delighted :  he  had  deposed  Vashti  for 
refusing  his  summons  to  an  orgie,  her  successor  is  one  to  risk  her 
life  on  an  invitation  to  a  banquet.  The  enemy  is  disarmed  from 
suspicion.  But,  more  than  all  this,  Esther  knows  well  that  she 
has  to  fight  against  the  whole  power  of  Haman  and  the  king  with 
no  weapon  but  that  of  her  own  beauty  :  instinct  makes  her  realise 
that  she  must  give  that  beauty  full  opportunity  to  make  itself  felt. 
The  banquet  takes  place,  with  the  king  and  Haman  as  the  sole 
guests.  Though  she  had  been  crowned  as  the  fairest  in  the  king- 
dom, yet  for  thirty  days  before  this  the  charms  of  Esther  had 
been  entirely  forgotten  by  the  royal  voluptuary  amid  other  dis- 
tractions of  pleasure.  Now  the  dominion  of  beauty  can  make  its 
sway  prevail  over  Ahasuerus,  and  at  the  end  of  the  feast  he  again 
asks  his  Queen  what  is  her  petition  and  request.  But  Esther  is 
strong  enough  to  wait,  and  make  surety  yet  more  sure.  She  begs 
therefore  for  a  second  banquet  on  the  morrow  with  the  same  two 
guests,  and  by  that  time  she  will  have  a  boon  to  ask.  Haman 
leaves  the  palace  at  the  height  of  blind  security.     In  the  gate  his 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE  233 

spirits  feel  a  rebuff  at  the  sight  of  the  unbending  Mordecai :  a  first 
speck  of  shadow  upon  his  horizon  of  fortune.  He  hurries  home, 
and  in  family  council  details  his  accumulated  honours  and  his  one 
drop  of  bitterness.  They  bid  him  build  a  gallows  fifty  cubits  high, 
and  ask  Mordecai's  life  at  once  without  waiting  for  the  slower  fate 
of  his  nation. 

Two  days  and  the  night  that  separates  them  make  up  the  period 
of  crisis  for  this  story  of  Esther.  The  turning-point  of  the  whole 
is  found  in  the  words  :  "  On  that  night  could  not  the  king  sleep." 
They  read  to  the  restless  king  the  chronicles  of  his  kingdom ;  and 
the  particular  passage  details  how  a  conspiracy  against  his  life  was 
revealed  by  one  Mordecai,  a  Jew.  Ahasuerus  enquires  what  honour 
has  been  done  to  this  Mordecai  in  recompense ;  and  hearing  that 
nothing  has  been  done,  the  king  will  take  up  the  matter  at  once. 
Haman  is  entering  in  the  early  morning  to  beg  the  life  of  the  Jew, 
who  refuses  to  bow  down  before  him,  when  the  king  shouts  to 
him  from  his  bed  the  question,  "  What  shall  be  done  unto  the 
man  whom  the  king  delighteth  to  honour?"  It  is  impossible  for 
Haman  to  understand  this  otherwise  than  as  a  salutation  to  him- 
self; and  in  reply  advises  a  royal  progress  with  a  chief  prince  to 
proclaim  before  the  fortunate  man  the  king's  purpose  to  honour 
him.  He  is  bidden  to  carry  out  his  advice  without  omission  of 
a  single  article  upon  Mordecai.  So  bitterly  has  nemesis  swung 
round  upon  him  that  Haman  is  forced  with  his  own  lips  to  pro- 
claim the  honours  of  his  hated  foe.  And  when,  after  the  ordeal 
is  over,  he  rushes  home  to  his  family  council  for  comfort,  here, 
where  he  feels  most  secure,  he  is  forced  to  see  the  shadow  of 
doom  deepening  over  him  ;  for  his  wife  and  councillors  make 
answer : 

If  Mordecai,  before  whom  thou  hast  begun  to  fall,  be  of  the  seed 
of  the  Jews,  thou  shalt  not  prevail  against  him,  but  shalt  surely  fall 
before  him. 

But  before  he  has  time  to  ponder  these  words  the  royal  escort 
summons  him  to  Esther's  banquet. 


234  BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AND   EPIC 

The  second  banquet  intensifies  the  effect  of  the  first,  and 
Ahasuerus  is  completely  under  the  spell  of  Esther's  beauty  when, 
for  the  third  time,  he  asks  her  to  name  her  petition  and  request. 
The  youthful  queen  has  been  all  this  time  holding  a  crisis  of  his- 
tory in  her  delicate  fingers.  Now  she  lets  the  thunderbolt  fall. 
Her  petition  is  her  own  life,  and  the  life  of  her  people,  sold,  to 
the  king's  damage,  by  "  this  wicked  Haman."  The  stricken 
favourite  grovels  before  the  king's  burst  of  fury,  and  is  seeking 
the  injured  Jewess  as  an  intercessor,  when  he  is  hurried  away  to 
the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai.  The  crisis  is  past, 
and  Mordecai  is  elevated  to  the  dignity  from  which  his  foe  had 
fallen.  But  there  is  still  the  decree  against  the  Jews  throughout 
the  empire,  enrolled  among  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians 
that  cannot  be  altered,  and  the  date  of  their  doom  is  steadily 
advancing.  Mordecai's  plan  is  to  send  another  decree  after  the 
first,  to  the  effect  that  the  Jews  on  the  day  appointed  shall  have 
full  power  to  defend  themselves.  So  when  the  day  of  fate  arrives, 
this  is  the  situation  throughout  the  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
provinces  of  the  empire  :  on  one  side  are  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
armed  with  the  king's  irreversible  decree  to  massacre  them  ;  on 
the  other  side  are  the  Jews  armed  with  the  king's  irreversible 
decree  to  defend  themselves ;  and  the  satraps  and  princes  of  the 
provinces  will  know  which  side  to  take  in  the  fray  now  that  a  Jew 
is  minister  of  the  empire.  It  becomes  a  day  of  slaughter  for  the 
enemies  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  provinces  and  the  royal  city ; 
and  our  last  sight  of  Esther  reveals  her  as  a  beautiful  incarnation 
of  vengeance,  petitioning  for  another  day  of  slaughter.  But  this 
is  the  passing  excitement  of  the  crisis,  the  passionate  justice  of 
one  trained  in  the  law  of  retaliation.  When  the  ordinary  current 
of  events  is  resumed,  a  feast  is  instituted  throughout  the  villages 
and  towns  of  the  Jews,  in  which  they  are  to  send  portions  one  to 
another  and  gifts  to  the  poor,  as  they  commemorate  their  nation 
saved  from  destruction  by  the  wisdom  of  Mordecai  and  the  beauty 
of  Esther. 


EPIC  POETRY   OF   THE   BIBLE  235 

So  far  the  literature  we  have  treated  has  been  Epic  Poetry  in 
the  strictest  sense.     There  are,  however,  two  other  types  to  be 
noted.      The  Idyl  is  not  a  distinct  literary  form, 
but  a  modification  of  other  forms;  and  the  Bible      °.  *  caionso 
contains  an  Epic   Idyl  as  well  as  a  Lyric  Idyl.' 
Again,  the  great  department  of  Prophecy  has  one  branch  which  is 
specially  connected  with  Epic  Poetry. 

If  the  chief  distinction  of  the  Idyl  be  its  subject  matter  of  love 
and  domestic  life,  then  in  all  literature  there  is  no  more  typical 
Idyl  than  the  Book  of  Ruth.     Following  the  Book 
of  Judges,  which  has  been  filled  with  bloodshed  BoJ,k^oTRu«f^ 
and  violence  and  the  heroism  of  the  sterner  virtues, 
it  comes  upon  us  like  a  benediction  of  peace.     It  contains  no 
trace  of  war  or  high  poUtics ;  the  disasters  of  its  story  are  the 
troubles  of  family  life  —  exile,  bereavement,  poverty ;   while  its 
grand  incidents  are  no  more  than  the  yearly  festivities  of  country 
life,  and  the  formal  transfers  of  property  that  must  go  on  although 
kingdoms  rise  and  fall. 

The  thread  running  through  the  whole,  and  binding  the  parts 
together,  is  found  in  a  magnetic  personality  such  as  may  exist  in 
the  quietest  life,  leaving  no  achievements  behind  it,  yet  in  its  time 
swaying  all  who  approach  it.  Elimelech  the  husband,  and  his  two 
sons,  are  no  more  than  names  to  us ;  it  is  Naomi  who  is  remem- 
bered in  Bethlehem  when  the  family  have  been  long  in  exile  ;  and 
when  she  returns,  the  whole  of  the  rural  city  is  moved  at  the 
thought  of  the  '  Pleasant  One  '  —  the  famous  beauty  of  former 
years  —  come  back  again.  Naomi  herself  feels  the  bitter  irony  of 
a  name  that  speaks  of  attractiveness  :  "  Call  me  not  Naomi,  call 
me  Mara,  for  the  Almighty  hath  dealt  very  bitterly  with  me." 
Three  waves  of  trouble  had  passed  over  her  since  she  had  wedded 
the  husband  of  her  youth.  First  came  famine  :  Elimelech's  land 
would  yield  no  living,  and  husband,  wife,  and  two  youthful  sons 
had  to  migrate  into  the  land  of  Moab,  where  exile  meant  not  only 
change  of  climate  and  people,  but  isolation  in  religion,  with  wor- 

1  See  above,  note  on  page  195. 


236  BTBLfCAL  HISTORY  A.VD  EPIC 

shippers  of  strange  gods  all  around.  There  they  continued  to 
Uve  until  Elimelech  died,  and  Naomi  was  left  alone  to  watch  over 
her  growing  sons.  She  must,  moreover,  in  this  land  of  strangers 
find  wives  for  these  youths ;  for  to  live  over  again  in  posterity  was 
the  only  immortality  to  which  in  their  daily  thoughts  the  families 
of  Israel  would  give  much  heed.  Ten  years  of  such  life  was 
allowed  to  Naomi,  and  then  the  third  blow  came  with  the  loss  of 
her  two  sons,  one  after  another,  while  no  children  had  yet  been 
bom  to  continue  their  line.  Broken  by  misfortunes,  and  with  no 
link  now  to  bind  her  to  her  Moabitish  home,  Naomi  sets  out  to 
return  to  the  land  of  Judah.  Her  daughters-in-law,  though  of 
foreign  race,  yet  have  felt  the  spell  of  her  attraction,  and  would 
fain  accompany  her ;  but  she  will  not  involve  their  young  hves  in 
the  dark  fate  which  heaven  seems  to  have  marked  out  for  herself : 
■■  It  grieveth  me  much  for  your  sakes,  for  the  hand  of  the  Lord  is 
gone  forth  against  me."  Situations  like  this  make  the  dividing 
points  of  character  ;  and  a  contrast  of  character  is  fully  depicted 
to  us  in  the  simple  verse :  "  And  Orpah  kissed  her  mother-in-law ; 
but  Ruth  clave  unto  her."  The  strong  and  sweet  Naomi  has 
bound  to  herself  another  character  like  her  own,  with  a  bond  no 
trouble  can  break  ;  and  the  musical  speech  of  Ruth  has  descended 
to  us  as  the  formula  of  personal  devotion  for  all  time. 

Intreat  me  not  to  leave  thee,  and  to  return  from  following  after 
thee :  for  whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go;  and  where  thou  lodgest,  I  will 
lodge :  thy  people  shaU  be  my  people,  and  thy  God  my  God :  where 
thou  diest,  will  I  die,  and  there  will  I  be  buried :  the  Lo&D  do  so  to 
me,  and  more  also,  if  aught  but  death  part  thee  and  me. 

So  the  ageing  Naomi  and  her  Moabite  daughter-in-law  return  to 
Bethlehem,  and.  after  creating  a  momentar)-  flutter  of  excitement, 
settle  down  to  a  hfe  of  obscure  j>overt)',  with  the  added  bitterness 
to  Naomi  of  seeing  the  family  estate  in  the  hands  of  others. 

Now  the  interest  of  the  idyl  changes  to  the  picturing  of  popular 
manners  and  customs.  We  have  before  us  all  the  bustle  and 
excitement  of  wheat  and  barley  harvest  in  an  agricultural  commu- 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  IZl 

nity  :  the  progress  of  the  reapers,  and  the  maidens  gleaning  be- 
hind them,  the  common  meal  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  master 
coming  down  to  look  on  and  exchanging  greetings  with  his  people. 
We  see  the  stranger  shyly  joining  the  gleaners,  the  story  of  her 
faithfulness  known  to  all  from  the  humblest  reaper  to  Boaz  him- 
self. With  a  strange  charm  there  come  to  us  across  the  gulf  of 
centuries  the  delicate  attentions  shown  to  Ruth  by  all,  the  little 
contrivances  by  which  she  is  made  to  glean  plentifully  without 
knowing  who  has  befriended  her,  the  place  of  honour  accorded 
her  at  the  meal.  No  detail  of  social  life  is  too  petty  for  the  idyl, 
not  even  the  way  in  which  Ruth  eats  her  portion  of  food  till  she  is 
sufficed,  and  what  she  leaves  she  brings  to  her  lonely  mother-in- 
law  at  home.  The  gloomy  day  of  Naomi's  life  is  to  have  light  at 
eventide,  and  the  first  gleam  of  that  light  is  the  name  of  the 
master  who  has  been  so  hospitable  :  Boaz  is  recognised  as  one 
near  of  kin,  and  Naomi  rallies  herself  to  the  task  of  seeking  a 
resting-place  for  the  loving  Ruth. 

More  manners  and  customs  follow,  and  those  of  the  quaintest. 
Ruth  follows  exactly  the  instructions  of  Naomi  in  going  through 
the  strange  ritual  by  which  she  must  claim  the  wealthy  and  pow- 
erful landowner  as  next  of  kin.  The  story  is  not  too  short  to  pre- 
vent our  catching  the  tenderness  with  which  Boaz  shields  the 
stranger  from  the  breath  of  gossip,  nor  the  refined  courtesy  by 
which  he  treats  the  great  service  asked  of  him  as  a  favour  done 
to  himself :  "  Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord,  my  daughter :  thou 
hast  showed  more  kindness  in  the  latter  end  than  at  the  beginning, 
inasmuch  as  thou  foUowedst  not  young  men,  whether  poor  or 
rich."  The  scene  changes  to  give  us  the  minutiae  of  legal  pro- 
cedure in  the  gate  of  the  city ;  and  here  again  contrast  of  charac- 
ter appears,  between  the  nameless  kinsman  who  is  ready  to  do 
everything  that  is  just,  and  Boaz,  who  will  go  further  and  be  gen- 
erous. So,  with  all  formalities,  the  land  of  EUmelech  is  redeemed, 
and  Boaz  takes  Ruth  to  wife,  in  order  that,  according  to  the  inter- 
esting Hebrew  law,  the  child  born  to  them  may  be  considered  to 
have  revived  the  line  of  his  grandfather.     The  long  delayed  hap- 


238  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

piness  of  Naomi  becomes  full  as  the  women  of  the  city  move  in 
procession  to  lay  the  new-born  babe  in  her  bosom,  and  sing  to  her 
how  his  name  shall  be  famous  in  Israel :  "  and  he  shall  be  unto 
thee  a  restorer  of  hfe,  and  a  nourisher  of  thine  old  age  :  for  thy 
daughter-in-law,  which  loveth  thee,  which  is  better  to  thee  than 
seven  sons,  hath  borne  him."  And  the  simple  Idyl  in  its  last 
words  joins  itself  on  to  the  main  stream  of  history  by  telling  that 
this  new-born  Obed  was  the  father  of  Jesse,  and  Jesse  was  the 
father  of  King  David  himself. 

It  remains  to  point  out  that  Biblical  Prophecy,  including  as  it 

does  all  literary  forms,  has  one  branch  which  is  in  character  epic. 

The  Greater  and  Minor  Prophets,  whose  books  of 
Epic  Prophecy 

prophecy  occupy  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  Old 

Testament,  all  date  from  a  period  not  earlier  than  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  the  Second.  Yet  before  that  period,  from  the  time 
of  Samuel  if  not  earlier,  prophets  played  a  great  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  Israel  and  Judah.  No  name  in  the  roll  of  prophets  will 
seem  higher  than  that  of  Elijah  :  yet  the  Bible  contains  no  '  Book 
of  the  Prophet  Elijah.'  These  earlier  prophets  did  not  write  their 
prophecy ;  they  lived  it.  It  was  conveyed  in  action,  and  its  only 
representation  in  literature  is  the  narrative  of  that  action.  A  fit 
name  then  for  such  literature  is  '  Epic  Prophecy.' 

(1)  Prophetic  This  Epic  Prophecy  exhibits  all  the  three  types 
stories  Qf  Epic.  Of  the  isolated  Prophetic  Story  there 
can  be  no  better  illustration  than  the  Story  of  Balaam,  already 

(2)  Prophetic  treated  in  full.  Prophetic  Cycles  are  connected 
Cycles  xvith  the  names  of  Elisha  and  of  Daniel.  The  for- 
mer is  particularly  well  marked,  occupying  seven  successive  chap- 
Cycie  of  Elisha  ters  with  fourteen  stories,  disconnected  from  one 
II  Kings  ii-viii  another,  but  all  having  Elisha  for  hero.  The  ele- 
ment of  miracle  is  common  to  them  all.  Some  seem  to  have  no 
point  beyond  this  interest  of  miracle  :  such  are  the  Story  of  the 
Mocking  Children,  of  the  Feeding  of  a  hundred  men,  of  the  Axe- 
head  that  swam.     Others  are  deeply  interesting  pictures  of  life, 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE   BIBLE  239 

like  the  Story  of  Naaman  and  Gehazi,  or  the  Siege  of  Samaria. 
One  of  these  is  so  impressive  in  the  suggestiveness  of  its  miracu- 
lous details,  and  the  lofty  plane  of  morality  to  which  its  conclu- 
sion rises,  that  I  cannot  forbear  from  citing  it  in  full  as  the  very 
ideal  of  Prophetic  Story. 

The  Expedition  to  arrest  Elisha 

Now  the  king  of  Syria  warred  against  Israel;  and  he  took  counsel 
with  his  servants,  saying,  In  such  and  such  a  place  shall  be  my  camp. 
And  the  man  of  God  sent  unto  the  Icing  of  Israel,  saying,  Beware  that 
thou  pass  not  such  a  place;  for  thither  the  Syrians  are  coming  down. 
And  the  king  of  Israel  sent  to  the  place  which  the  man  of  God  had 
told  him  and  warned  him  of;  and  he  saved  himself  there,  not  once  nor 
twice.  And  the  heart  of  the  king  of  Syria  was  sore  troubled  for  this 
thing;  and  he  called  his  servants,  and  said  unto  them.  Will  ye  not 
show  me  which  of  us  is  for  the  king  of  Israel?  And  one  of  his  ser- 
vants said.  Nay,  my  lord,  O  king :  but  Elisha,  the  prophet  that  is  in 
Israel,  telleth  the  king  of  Israel  the  words  that  thou  speakest  in  thy 
bedchamber.  And  he  said,  Go  and  see  where  he  is,  that  I  may  send 
and  fetch  him.  And  it  was  told  him,  saying.  Behold,  he  is  in  Dothan. 
Therefore  sent  he  thither  horses,  and  chariots,  and  a  great  host :  and 
they  came  by  night,  and  compassed  the  city  about.  And  when  the  ser- 
vant of  the  man  of  God  was  risen  early,  and  gone  forth,  behold,  an 
host  with  horses  and  chariots  was  round  about  the  city.  And  his 
servant  said  unto  him,  Alas!  my  master,  how  shall  we  do?  And  he 
answered.  Fear  not :  for  they  that  be  with  us  are  more  than  they  that 
be  with  them.  And  Elisha  prayed,  and  said,  Lord,  I  pray  thee,  open 
his  eyes,  that  he  may  see.  And  the  Lord  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
young  man;  and  he  saw:  and,  behold,  the  mountain  was  full  of  horses 
and  chariots  of  fire  round  about  Elisha.  And  when  they  came  down 
to  him,  Elisha  prayed  unto  the  Lord,  and  said.  Smite  this  people, 
I  pray  thee,  with  blindness.  And  he  smote  them  with  blindness 
according  to  the  word  of  Elisha.  And  Elisha  said  unto  them,  This  is 
not  the  way,  neither  is  this  the  city:  follow  me,  and  I  will  bring  you  to 
the  man  whom  ye  seek.  And  he  led  them  to  Samaria.  And  it  came 
to  pass,  when  they  were  come  into  Samaria,  that  Elisha  said,  Lord, 
open  the  eyes  of  these  men,  that  they  may  see.  And  the  Lord  opened 
their  eyes,  and  they  saw;  and,  behold,  they  were  in  the  midst  of 
Samaria.     And  the  king  of  Israel  said  unto  Elisha,  when  he  saw  them, 


240  BIBLICAL   HIST  OK  Y  AXD   EPIC 

My  father,  shall  I  smite  them?  shall  I  smite  them?  And  he  answered, 
Thou  shalt  not  smite  them :  wouldest  thou  smite  those  whom  thou  hast 
taken  captive  with  thy  sword  and  with  thy  bow?  set  bread  and  water 
before  them,  that  they  may  eat  and  drink,  and  go  to  their  master.  And 
he  prepared  great  provision  for  them :  and  when  they  had  eaten  and 
drunk,  he  sent  them  away,  and  they  went  to  their  master.  And  the 
bands  of  Syria  came  no  more  into  the  land  of  Israel. 

There  is  a  third  type  of  Epic  Prophecy  analogous  to  the  Epic 

Histories  which  combine  a  multiplicity  of  incidents 
E  cs*^"^  ^  ^^        ^'^'•^  ^^  organic  whole.     The  Bible  contains  two 

such  Prophetic  Epics,  connected  with  the  two 
names  of  Elijah  the  Tishbite  and  Jonah. 

The  Book  of  J^onah  is  contained  amongst  the  books  of  the 
Minor  Prophets,  yet  every  reader  feels  how  different  it  is  from  all 

the  rest.  Nahum  and  Jonah  ahke  received  a  com- 
Tonah""  °  mission  to   denounce   Nineveh  :    Nahum  gives  us 

the  usual  prophetic  discourse ;  the  other  book 
contains  no  discourse,  but  describes  the  actions  of  Jonah  precisely 
as  certain  chapters  in  the  Book  of  Kings  describe  the  actions 
of  Elijah.  There  is  another  peculiarity  of  Jonah.  With  other 
prophets  to  hear  is  to  obey.  But  the  Book  of  y^onah  narrates 
the  rebellion  of  the  prophet  against  the  Divine  mandate  even 
more  fully  than  it  describes  his  obedience.  If  such  a  narrative  is 
correctly  described  as  Epic  Prophecy  it  will  follow  that  the  resist- 
ance of  Jonah,  no  less  than  his  obedience,  will  contain  the  revela- 
tion which  it  is  the  province  of  Prophecy  to  impart.  This  seems 
to  be  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  book. 

The  prophecy  opens  with  the  command  to  go  to  Nineveh  and 
denounce  it.  "  But  Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  unto  Tarshish  from  the 
presence  of  the  Lord."  In  picturesque  detail  we  have  the  em- 
barking at  Joppa,  the  "  great  wind  hurled  into  the  sea,"  the  terror 
of  the  mariners,  each  calling  on  his  god.  Jonah,  waked  from 
sleep,  recognises  the  power  of  Jehovah  pursuing  him,  and  humbly 
bows  to  his  fate.  However  reluctantly,  the  mariners  are  at  last 
driven  to  cast  him  overboard.     While  for  them  the  storm  ceases, 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  241 

Jonah  is  miraculously  swallowed  up — the  detail  of  the  miracle  is 
of  no  significance  —  and  in  no  less  miraculous  manner  restored. 
The  first  part  of  the  book  ends  with  his  song  of  thanksgiving. 

This  series  of  incidents  contains  a  revelation  that  may  seem 
elementary  to  us,  but  was  unquestionably  needed  by  the  times  of 
the  prophet.  I  have  before  had  occasion  to  speak  of  the  primi- 
tive conception  of  Deity  by  which  a  god  was  regarded  as  a  terri- 
torial being,  whose  power  was  limited  by  the  region  in  which  he 
was  worshipped.  That  this  conception  extended  to  the  age  of 
Jonah  is  clear  from  a  verse  in  the  Book  of  Kings, 

,.,,,,  ,  .    ,       ,  .  .  _,      .       I  Kings  XX.  23 

which  tells  how  the  servants  of  the  kmg  of  Syria 
said  of  the  Israelites,  "  Their  god  is  a  god  of  the  hills ;  therefore 
they  were  stronger  than  we  :  but  let  us  fight  against  them  in  the 
plain,  and  surely  we  shall  be  stronger  than  they."  In  this  prophecy 
the  same  notion  appears  in  the  way  the  mariners  —  no  doubt  vary- 
ing in  race  and  country  —  call  each  upon  his  god  ;  it  appears  still 
more  strikingly  in  the  accession  of  terror  brought  to  them  amid 
the  tossing  of  the  waves  by  Jonah's  saying  that  his  God  was  the 
creator  of  land  and  sea.  Nay,  the  same  idea  is  seen  to  have 
affected  the  prophet  himself.  No  doubt  Jonah  was  blessed  with 
a  higher  revelation  of  God.  But  the  history  of  all  religions  makes 
it  plain  that  the  acceptance  of  a  higher  conception  does  not  so 
far  obliterate  older  conceptions  but  that  they  can  influence  con- 
duct at  times.  And  it  is  clear  that  the  old  notion  of  God  as  the 
God  of  a  particular  land  was  moving  Jonah's  purposes  when  he 
set  out  for  the  far  west  "from  the  presence  of  Jehovah."  Waking 
to  the  tempest,  he  recognised  Jehovah's  power  as  extending  through 
heaven,  and  the  sea,  and  the  dry  land  ;  and  the  double  miracle 
wrought  upon  himself  of  judgment  and  deliverance  brought  this 
revelation  to  its  climax. 

The  narrative  continues.  A  second  commission  is  immediately 
obeyed,  and  Jonah  journeys  through  the  vast  city,  crying,  "  Yet 
forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown."  Like  an  account 
of  some  infection  spreading  through  a  great  centre  of  population 
reads  the  description  of  the  city  of  Nineveh  repenting  in  sackcloth 


242  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

and  with  "  mighty  cries."  The  repentance  is  genuine,  is  accepted 
by  God,  and  the  destruction  does  not  come.  Jonah  is  "  dis- 
pleased exceedingly."  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  displeasure  of 
Jonah  is  no  mere  ebullition  of  temper.  With  the  impulsive  sin- 
cerity of  his  character  he  lays  his  complaint  before  God ;  and  it 
seems  to  be  with  some  hope  of  having  moved  Jehovah  from  his 
purpose  of  mercy  that  Jonah  makes  his  booth,  and  sits  watching 
"till  he  might  see  what  would  become  of  the  city."  Burned  by 
the  sun  without  and  prophetic  anger  within,  Jonah  is  suddenly 
aware  of  a  '  gourd-plant '  which  with  swift  growth  has  shot  up  to 
screen  him,  and  he  comes  to  love  it  for  its  beauty  and  grateful 
shadow.  In  a  single  night  a  worm  gnaws  the  gourd,  and  by  morn- 
ing it  is  withered  and  fallen.  Soon  su'try  wind  and  direct  blaze 
of  sun  drive  Jonah  to  physical  exhaustion;  more  than  that,  ''he 
does  well  to  be  angry  "  :  the  lovely  gourd  smitten  by  the  foul 
worm  seems  to  him  a  blot  on  God's  providence.  Then  comes 
the  Divine  message. 

Thou  hast  had  pity  on  the  gourd,  for  the  which  thou  hast  not  laboured, 
neither  madest  it  grow;  which  came  up  in  a  night,  and  perished  in  a 
night :  and  should  not  I  have  pity  on  Nineveh,  that  great  city;  wherein 
are  more  than  six  score  thousand  persons  that  cannot  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left  hand;   and  also  much  cattle? 

What  is  the  prophetic  revelation  underlying  this  latter  part  of 

the  book?      Not,  as  some  would  have  it,  the  lovingkindness  of 

Jehovah   and    his  forgiveness  of  the  repentant :    for  this  Jonah 

expressly  declares  he  has  known  from  the  first.     But  this 

iv.  2 

glorious  mercy  of  Jehovah  the  prophet  had  conceived  as 
the  heritage  of  the  Hebrew  people  ;  he  watches  with  indignation 
its  extension  to  the  heathen.  As  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  proph- 
ecy he  was  led  to  see  that  Divine  power  was  not  confined  to  the 
land  of  Israel,  but  that  the  dominion  of  Jehovah  extended  over 
the  universe,  so  now  he  is  to  be  taught  that  the  supremacy  of 
mercy  over  judgment  is  an  attribute  of  God  in  which  all  races 
may  feel  that  they  have  an  interest.      There  is  more  than  this. 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE   BIBLE  243 

Even  Jonah  would  not  have  challenged  the  authority  of  God  to 
forgive  Nineveh ;  only  he  claimed  for  himself  the  right  to  disso- 
ciate himself  from  such  mercy  :  he  did  well  to  be  angry.  To 
entwine  his  affections  about  the  simplest  work  of  creation  —  a 
plant,  and  then  to  wound  those  affections  by  roughly  destroying  it : 
this  was  the  object  lesson  by  means  of  which  the  prophet  was  to 
be  admitted  into  the  commencement  of  communion  with  the  world- 
wide sympathy  of  Deity.  To  raise  men's  thoughts  from  the  nar- 
row conception  of  a  local  god  to  the  vision  of  an  Omnipotence 
exercising  dominion  over  the  universe  ;  then  to  extend  to  the 
whole  human  race  the  supremacy  of  mercy  over  judgment,  ahke 
in  the  attributes  of  God  and  the  sympathy  of  man  :  these  are 
the  points  of  prophetic  revelation  conveyed  in  the  Epic  of  Jonah. 


CHAPTER   X 

BIBLICAL    HISTORY    IN    ITS    RELATIONS    WITH    BIBLICAL 

EPIC 

In  the  wider  treatment  of  literature,  which  includes  questions 
of  authorship  and  discussion  of  subject  matter,  the  historical  books 
of  the  Bible  present  many  and  great  difficulties. 
History  repre-  ^^  small  space  only  need  be  allotted  to  them  in  the 
sented  in  the  present  work,  the  field  of  which  is  limited  to  the 
characteristics  of  Scriptural  literature  as  it  stands, 
apart  from  any  further  enquiry  as  to  how  it  has  grown  into  what 
we  find  it.  If  we  except  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  which  is  best 
classified  otherwise,  narrative  extends  without  break  from  Genesis 
to  Esther  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  New  Testament  from 
St.  Matthew  to  Acts.  The  sole  question  for  the  present  chapter 
is,  How  many  of  the  various  forms  that  History  may  assume  are 
represented  in  this  succession  of  historical  works  ? 

The  name  Genesis  is  suggestive  of  the  character  of  the  book  to 
which  it  is  a  tide  :  it  is  Primitive  History.  It  covers  the  ages 
Primitive  His-  preceding  the  appearance  of  the  Chosen  People  as 
tory  a  nation.     Eleven   of  its   chapters   deal  with   the 

Book  of  Genesis  ^^^^  beginnings  of  the  world  ;  the  rest  is  occupied 
with  the  succession  of  the  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
Joseph.  At  the  close  of  Genesis  the  seed  of  Abraham  is  still 
treated  as  a  large  family ;  when  the  history  is  resumed  in  the  fol- 
lowing book  the  Egyptians  pronounce  the  Children 
of  Israel  a  people  more  and  mightier  than  them- 
selves.    The  character  of  this  I'rimitive  History  may  be  described 

244 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  245 

as  an  historic  framework  enclosing  epic  incidents.  The  epic  ele- 
ment has  been  dealt  with  in  the  last  chapter  :  Genesis  contains 
single  epic  stories,  such  as  the  flood,  cycles  of  stories  attaching  to 
the  successive  patriarchs,  and  a  single  complete  epic  history  in 
the  Story  of  Joseph  and  his  Brethren.  The  framework  of  history 
is  made  up  of  genealogies,  annals,  and  connective  matter  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  As  part  of  this  connective  matter  we  have  certain 
incidents  which  are  clearly  introduced  for  some  historic  purpose. 
Thus  incidents  connecting  Abimelech  and  Abraham,  and  again 
Abimelech  and  Isaac,  are  related  with  a  view  to 

,    .       ,  .  r  T^  1     1  11  •  xxi.  22-34;  xxvi 

explam  the  nammg  of  Beersheba  and  other  ancient 

wells.     Similarly  the  story  of  Canaan's  father,  and   the  story  of 

Lot's  daughters  are  designed  to  account  for  the 

mutual    relations   of  great   world    families.     Such   g^'  *°^'  ^^^'  ^*" 

Historic  Incidents  are  easily  distinguishable  from 

the  Epic  Incidents  of  which  the  interest  lies  in  the  story  itself. 

Following  this  Primitive  History  of  Genesis,  three  books  de- 
scribe the  Migration  of  the  Nation  up  to  the  arrival  at  the  Land 
of  Promise.  These  three  books  may  be  classified 
together  as  Constitutional  History.  They  are  in  H-stoJT*''"'^^ 
the  nature  of  things  different  in  kind  from  what  Books  of  Exodus, 
that  term  generally  suggests.  Other  peoples  have  J'^'^'t^cus,  Num- 
gradually  elaborated  their  constitution  out  of  origi- 
nal popular  customs  and  modifications  by  specific  enactment.  But 
the  Chosen  Nation  of  Israel  is  governed  directly  by  God,  and  its 
only  Constitutional  History  is  the  successive  revelations  of  the 
Law.  Such  history  will  of  course  include  certain  incidents,  lead- 
ing up  to  these  revelations  or  intimately  associated  with  them ; 
as  where  the  visit  of  Jethro  leads  to  the  institution  of  subordinate 
judges,  or  factions  and  rebelUons  issue  in  fresh  confirmation  of  the 
authority  wielded  by  Moses  or  the  priesthood  as  Jehovah's  repre- 
sentatives. Besides  these  incidents,  the  opening  of  this  section 
of  history  assumes  creative  form  in  the  great  Epic  of  the  Ten 
Plagues ;  and  near  its  conclusion  is  found  the  Epic  Story  of 
Balaam.     The  natural  divisions  of  this  Constitutional  History  are 


246  BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

three  :  eighteen  chapters  of  Exodus  describe  the  slavery  in  Egypt, 
the  deUverance,  and  the  journey  to  Sinai ;  the  rest  of  Exodus  and 
the  whole  of  Leviticus  are  occupied  with  the  general  constitution 
of  the  nation  at  Sinai ;  and  the  Book  of  Numbers  traces  the  march 
from  Sinai  and  the  thirty-eight  years  wandering  in  the  wilderness. 

We  pass  to  another  period,  which  is  represented  in  the  litera- 
ture by  yet   another  type   of  history.      The  Chosen   Nation   in 

its  various  efforts  towards  secular  government  is 
^^jjl  pictured  in  the  Books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  and 

Joshua,  Judges,  the  First  Book  of  Samuel}  The  Book  of  Joshua 
I   amue  narrates   the  conquest  of  Canaan  and  division  of 

the  conquered  country.  The  book  that  follows  indicates  an  age 
of  sporadic  attempts  at  government  by  *  Judges,'  who  from  time 
to  time  rise  up  and  succeed  in  commanding  a  more  or  less  wide 
obedience  ;  in  the  intervals  between  such  Judges  there  is  nothing 
but  local  government,  or,  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  every  man 
does  that  which  is  right  in  his  own  eyes.  In  this  book,,  however, 
is  to  be  found  the  first  idea  of  that  monarchical  rule  which  was 
eventually  to   assimilate  Israel  to  other  nations.     After  the  great 

deliverance  wrought  by  Gideon  he  is  invited  to 

become  king,  but  refuses:  "I  will  not  rule  over 
you,  neither  shall  my  son  rule  over  you  :  the  Lord  shall  rule  over 
you."     After  Gideon's  death  another  and  less  worthy  son  allowed 

himself  to  be  crowned  king  by  the  men  of  Shechem  ; 
vm.  33 IX  ^^^^  ^^^  ^.^.j  ^^^^  followed  until  this  king  and  his 

party  had  exterminated  one  another.  The  demand  for  a  secular 
king  does  not  reappear  until  the  movement  which  ended  in  the 
appointment  by  Divine  permission  of  Saul.  But  before  this  took 
place  another  power  had  emerged  for  the  control  of  the  Israelite 
people  :  in  Samuel  the  '  Judge  '  gradually  grew  into  the  '  Prophet,' 
and  all  through  the  subsequent  age  of  secular  kings  there  were 
never  wanting  prophets  to  represent  the  old  theocracy  of  the 
Chosen  People.  All  these  considerations  confirm  the  description 
of  this  epoch  as  a  period  of  transition  and  tentative  rule. 

1  The  exact  division  should  come  at  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  of  //  Samuel. 


Xlll-XZll 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  247 

The  history  in  the  three  books  is  properly  described  as  Inci- 
dental History.  Nearly  the  whole  of  it  consists  in  Epic  Incidents  : 
whether  the  separate  Stories  of  the  Judges,  or  Cycles  of  Stories 
relating  to  Joshua,  to  Samson,  to  Samuel  and  Saul.  In  the  latter 
part  the  Feud  of  Saul  and  David  appears  as  one  of  the  most 
extended  of  Epics.  The  historic  framework  binding  these  epic 
portions  together  is  often  of  the  slightest  description,  no  more 
than  a  linking  of  one  incident  to  another.     The 

°  .  i-iii.  6 

most  considerable  parts  of  such  connective  matter 

are  the  summary  with  which  the  Book  of  Judges  opens,  and  the 

geographical  chapters  va  Joshua  which  make  a  sort 

of  Canaanite  Doomsday  Book. 

The  accession  of  King  David  marks  the  settlement  of  the 
monarchy ;  the  period  extending  from  this  point  to  the  Captivity 
is  narrated  in  the  second  book  of  Satnuel  and  the  ^^^1^1  History 
two  books  of  Kings.  First  we  have  the  reigns  of  u  Samuel,  i  and 
David  and  Solomon  over  a  united  people  ;  then  "  '^^^ 
comes  the  schism  of  the  nation  and  the  continuance  of  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel  side  by  side ;  finally,  after  the  fall  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  the  history  of  Judah  by  itself  is  carried  on 
to  its  close.  The  narrative  in  these  three  books  may  be  described 
as  Regular  History.  It  is  a  systematic  account  of  successive 
reigns.  There  is  formal  arrangement  of  the  matter  :  in  the  earlier 
part  public  policy  is  to  a  large  extent  separated  from  court  life,^ 
while  later  on  the  respective  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  are  kept  as 
nearly  parallel  as  the  nature  of  the  case  permits.  Lists  of  officials 
from  time  to  time  add  an  element  of  documentary  history ;  and 
there  is  constant  reference  to  authorities,  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  others.  Incidents  are  narrated 
historically,  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the  bearing  of  each  on  the 
general  course  of  events.  There  is,  however,  in  the  early  part  one 
considerable  Epic,  the  Feud  between  David's  Sons  and  the  Revolt 
of  Absalom  ;  and  to  this  may  be  added  the  Book  of  Esther,  which, 
however,  falls  outside  the  period,  and  is  a  story  of  the  Captivity. 

1  Chapters  ix-xx  of  //  Samuel  centre  around  court  life. 


24S  BIBLICAL   HISTORY  AXD  EPIC 

The  place  occupied  in  the  other  sections  of  history  by  Epic  Inci- 
dents is  in  this  last  section  mainly  represented  by  Epic  Prophecy : 
in  the  stories  of  individual  prophets  like  Nathan  and  Abijah,  and 
the  more  extended  narratives  connected  with  Elijah  and  Elisha,  the 
theocratic  side  of  Israel's  government  finds  representation. 

There  remain  in  the  Old  Testament  the  books  of  Chronicles, 
Ezra,  and  Nehetniah.     These  make  a  series  that  covers  the  period 

„  ,  .  ^.  ,  treated  in  the  last  section,  and  carries  it  forward  as 
Ecclesiastical  ' 

History  far  as  the  return  of  the  Exiles  to  Jerusalem.     But 

Chromcies,  Ezra,  ^^^  history  in  this  series  is  entirelv  changed  in 
Nehemiah  ^  '  ° 

character :   it  is  distinguished  by  the  prominence 

of  documents,  genealogies,  statistics ;    the   narrative   appears   to 

consist  in  excerpts  from  the  other  books  of  the  Bible  and  from 

authorities  distinct  from   these.      What   is   more   important,  the 

whole  is  dominated  by  a  definite  purpose  :  the  matter  is  abridged, 

amplified,  arranged,  with  reference  to  its  bearing  on  the  Jewish 

Church,  as  that  Church  was  restored  after  the  exile.     It  is  thus 

Ecclesiastical  Histor}'. 

The  distinctness  of  this  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Regular 

History  which  appeals  generally  to  our  sense  of  record  is  best 

illustrated  by  taking  a  particular  incident  for  comparison.     I  have 

before  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  inauguration  of  Jerusalem  by 

King  David ;  it  will  be  instructive  to  note  how  this  is  treated  in 

Chronicles  and  in  Samuel. 

II  Samuel  I  Chronicles 

xiii.    1-4     Da\-id's    proposal    to    the 
Assembly  in  the  matter  of  the  Ark: 
with  the  special  mention  of  priests 
and  Levites. 
vi.  1-12  (fl)     The  Assembly,  and  first       5-14    The  same  matter  as  in  the  cor- 
attempt  to  bring  up  the  Ark,  ending       responding  section  of  Samuel :  con- 
in  the  death  of  I'zzah,  the  leaving  of      siderable  verbal  agreement,  with  some 
the  .\rk  in  the  house  of  Obed-Edom,       difference  of  names,  etc. 
and    the   blessing   on   the   house   of 
Obed-Edom. 


BIBLICAL   LUST  OR  Y 


249 


XV.  1-24  David's  recognition  that 
none  but  the  Levites  should  bear  the 
Ark  —  long  lists  of  appointments 
both  for  the  bearing  and  the  musical 
performance. 


vi.  I2(3)-I9(«)     The  procession  of      xv.  25-xvi.  3     Substantial  agreement 


the  Ark  —  David's  part 
Michal's  displeasure  —  the  inaugu- 
ration carried  to  the  point  of  a  dole 
to  the  assembly. 


with    the    corresponding    section    of 
Samuel —  but  fuller  musical  details. 


xvi.  4-42  Appointment,  apparently 
dating  from  this  festival,  of  a  regular 
ministry  before  the  Ark :  names  of 
officials  and  citation  of  (leading) 
songs  used. 

vi.  19  (b')-20  (a)     Return  home  of      xvi.  43     Exactly  as  in  Samuel. 
the  people  and  of  David. 

vi.  20    (^)-23      Sequel    of    Michal's 
displeasure. 

Thus,  the  substance  of  the  narrative  is  common  to  both  accounts, 
with  variation  in  unimportant  details,  and  an  amount  of  verbal 
agreement  sufficient  to  show  that  the  author  of  the  later  work  had 
the  earlier  before  him,  or  else  that  both  used  a  common  authority. 
But  the  account  in  Chronicles  has  additions  which  bring  out  the 
ecclesiastical  purpose  of  its  history  :  there  is  the  explanation  of 
Uzzah's  death  as  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  Levitical  privileges, 
the  appointments  made  in  consequence  of  this,  and  the  full  detail 
of  musical  arrangements.  Again,  when  the  common  narrative  has 
been  brought  down  to  all  but  its  last  detail,  it  is,  in  Chronicles, 
interrupted  by  a  lengthy  account  of  a  general  ministry  dating  from 
this  day  of  inauguration ;  then  the  final  detail  of  the  common 
narrative  is  added.  On  the  other  hand,  the  only  section  of  the 
story  of  Samuel  which  has  no  counterpart  in  Chronicles  is  the 
domestic  incident  of  Michal's  remonstrance  with  the  king,  in 
which  Ecclesiastical  History  would  have  no  concern. 


250  BIBUCAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Jewish  Church  in  the  Old 
Testament  has  in  the  New  Testament  a  coanter- 
part  in  the  historical  works  connected  with  the 
foundation  of  Christianity.  In  a  literary  classification  what  is  the 
position  to  be  assigned  to  the  Four  Gospels  ?  Though  they  are  a 
part  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  yet  they  are  not  histories.  How  hi 
they  are  from  being  biographies  is  seen  by  the  difficulty  vriiich 
modem  writers,  with  the  Gospels  before  them,  find  in  construct- 
ing a  satis£aictory  biography  of  Jesus  Christ  It  might  seem  more 
plausible  to  associate  them  with  the  department  of  Prophecy, 
siiKre  we  have  seen  that  prophetic  Uterature  is  concerned  both 
with  the  discourses  of  the  prophets  and  with  their  actions.  But 
the  difierence  between  the  Gospels  and  Prophecy  is  greater  than 
the  resemblance.  The  personal  position  of  Jesus  in  the  history 
of  the  Gospels  is  not  that  of  a  propheL  Though  the  fimction  of 
prophets  is  to  convey  a  Divine  message,  yet  prophetic  literature 
is  made  not  so  much  by  the  message  as  by  the  discourse  which 
enforces  it :  Jesus  Christ,  on  the  contrary,  speaks  throughout  the 
Gospels  with  the  authority  that  commands  and  enacts,  iK>t  with 
the  appeal  inviting  to  a  doctrine  other  than  his  own.  The  conclu- 
sion we  are  led  to  is  that  the  Gospels  must  be  classified  by  them- 
selves, as  a  specific  literary  form.  The  description  of  this  form  is 
that  they  are  Authoritative  Statements  of  the  Acts  and  Words 
of  Christ.  As  in  the  machinery  of  public  Ufe  we  have  protocols 
reciting  with  authority  facts  ox  documents  upon  which  poUtical 
acti<»  is  to  be  founded,  so  the  authors  of  the  Gospels  drew  up, 
and  the  eariy  Church  accepted,  what  were,  not  in  themselves  books 
of  law,  but  the  best  authorities  for  the  Acts  and  Words  of  their 
Founder,  to  which  the  Church  looked  for  its  supreme  law.  .\nd 
this  technical  description  is  borne  out  by  the  language  of  the 
Preface  to  St.  Luke. 

Forasmuch  as  manj  hare  taken  in  hand  to  dnw  iq>  a  nairatiTe  ooo- 
ceming  those  matteis  vhkh  hare  been  fidfilled  among  vs,  eren  as  they 
defirered  them  onto  ns,  which  from  the  beginnii^  were  erevitnesses 
and  ministas  of  the  woid,  it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  haTing  traced 


BIBLICAL   HISTORY  251 

the  course  of  all  things  accurately  from  the  first,  to  write  unto  thee  in 
order,  most  excellent  Theophilus;  that  thou  mightest  know  the  cer- 
tainty concerning  the  things  wherein  thou  wast  instructed. 

If  this  be  a  correct  description  from  the  literary  standpoint  of 
the  Four  Gospels,  then  it  will  be  seen  that  the  remaining  book  of 
Acts  must  be  referred  to  the  same  classification. 
It  is  indeed  announced  as  a  continuation  of  St.  Apostles^" 
Luke's  Gospel ;  and  in  character  it  is  an  Author- 
itative Statement  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Apostles,  in  the  early 
stages  of  founding  the  Church,  and  opening  it  to  the  whole  Gen- 
tile world.  This  characterisation  of  the  book  will  appear  in  its 
title,  if  the  wording  of  the  title  be  translated  out  of  technical  into 
familiar  language.  The  '  Apostles '  are  so  called  because  they 
have  received  a  certain  'commission'  from  their  Master;  the 
'Acts  of  the  Apostles'  are  the  'Proceedings  of  the  Commission- 
ers.' This  description  again  exactly  tallies  with  the  plan  and 
arrangement  of  the  book.  If  Acts  be  regarded  as  ordinary  his- 
tory, it  will  seem  strange  that  the  personages  and  places  which 
dominate  the  earlier  part  are  in  the  latter  part  almost  forgotten ; 
moreover,  the  history  seems  to  end  abruptly  just  where  it  might  be 
expected  to  become  specially  full.  But  the  terms  of  the  '  com- 
mission '  are  that  the  Apostles  are  to  make  disciples  of  all  nations, 
beginning  at  Jerusalem.  The  book  that  is  to  narrate  the  execution 
of  this  commission  deals  in  full  detail  with  the  start  made  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  rest  of  it  has  for  its  purpose  to  bring  out  the  succes- 
sive enlargements  of  the  area  in  which  the  Church  is  at  work. 
The  first  grand  enlargement  is  the  admission  of  Gentiles ;  and 
this  is  voluminously  treated  in  the  account  of  St.  Peter's  Vision,  of 
the  Council  settling  difificulties  between  the  Jews  and  the  Gentile 
converts,  above  all,  in  the  rise  of  the  Apostle  who  is  to  devote 
himself  specially  to  this  work.  It  is  natural  that  from  this  point 
the  history  should  mainly  concern  itself  with  St. 
Paul.  Another  miraculous  Vision  marks  a  further 
enlargement,  where  the  Gospel  is  carried  from  .Asia  to  Europe, 
And   a  series  of  providential  circumstances,  not   less  wonderful 


252  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

than  a  vision,  are  narrated  at  length  from  their  importance  in 
bringing   the   Apostle  of  the   Gentiles    to    Rome. 
^^^'  '^  When  the  work  of  making  disciples  has  thus  been 

carried  from  Jerusalem  to  the  city  which  is  the  metropolis  of  all 
nations,  the  terms  of  the  commission  have  been  fully  executed : 
what  remains  may  be  left  to  the  history  which  is  not  authoritative. 
These  are  the  various  types  of  history  represented  in  Scripture. 
In  conclusion  I  would  say  that  those  who  desire  to  appreci- 
ate these  narrative  books  as  literature,  apart  from  the  historical 
problems  they  raise,  will  do  well  to  see  that  they  read,  not  in 
'  chapters,'  but  in  portions  that  are  fixed  by  literary  considera- 
tions ;  taking  in  a  book  at  a  sitting,  or  if  not,  something  which 
makes  a  natural  division  of  a  book.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
tables  in  the  Appendix  to  this  work  to  assist  such  reading ;  and  I 
suggest  that  a  student  should,  by  a  little  use  of  the  pencil  in  the 
margin  of  his  Revised  Version,  do  that  for  Biblical  History  which  in 
any  other  history  would  be  done  for  him  by  the  printer. 


Book  Fourth    ^ 

THE   PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE   BIBLE,   OR  WISDOM 
LITERATURE 


Chapter  Page 

XL     Forms  of  Wisdom  Literature   .....    255 

XIL     The  Sacred  Books  of  Wisdom  .....    284 

XIIL     'The  Wisdom  of  Solomon' 305 


CHAPTER   XI 

FORMS    OF    WISDOM    LITERATURE 

This  fourth  book  is  reserved  for  the  Philosophy  of  the  Bible ; 
that  is  to  say,  for  the  wide  range  of  Scriptural  literature  which  is 
the  counterpart  of  our  modern  Philosophy  and 
Science.  These  two  names,  however,  are  scarcely  ^^  °"^  ^ " 
to  be  found  in  the  sacred  writings ;  the  literature 
we  are  to  consider  is,  in  the  Bible  itself,  uniformly  designated 
'Wisdom.'  The  word  is  suggestive  of  one,  if  not  both,  the  main 
distinctions  which  separate  Biblical  Philosophy  from  modern 
thought.  If  it  be  not  pressing  the  word  too  far,  there  is  a  pictur- 
esqueness  in  the  name  '  Wisdom  '  that  harmonises  with  the  pictur- 
esqueness  of  form  never  absent  from  Scriptural  hterature  of  thought. 
Modern  works  of  science  confine  themselves  strictly  to  severe 
prose  style.  But  the  literature  of  Wisdom  borrows  often  the  form 
of  lyric,  and  sometimes  even  of  dramatic  poetry,  and  where  it  is 
furthest  removed  from  these,  it  still  leaves  the  impression  of  attach- 
ing as  much  consequence  to  the  artistic  form  as  to  the  thought. 
More  important  than  this  is  the  suggestion  in  the  name  '  Wisdom  ' 
that  its  literature  will  have  a  practical  bearing  on  human  conduct. 
A  great  part  of  such  writings  is  made  up  of  specific  observations  or 
precepts  in  matters  of  social  and  family  life,  of  business  manage- 
ment, public  policy,  and  general  self-government.  And  where  such 
works  as  Ecclesiastes  or  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon^  are  occupied  in 

1  I  assume  throughout  this  part  of  my  subject  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  and  EccUsiasticus.  The  distinction  implied  in  the  word  '  Apocryphal '  is 
one  of  theology :  according  to  the  Anglican  formula,  "  the  Church  doth  read  [them] 

255 


256  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

interpreting  history,  or  reading  the  riddle  of  Hfe,  they  make  it 
clear  that  the  argument  is  followed  with  a  constant  reference  to 
the  bearing  of  the  whole  on  conduct.  It  is  only  when  comparison 
is  made  with  the  kindred  department  of  Prophecy  that  we  see  the 
right  of  Wisdom  literature  to  be  classified  under  the  head  of  Phi- 
losophy, the  organ  of  reflection.  Prophecy  also  is  concerned  with 
conduct ;  but  it  starts  always  with  a  Divine  message,  on  which  all 
that  it  contains  is  based.  Of  course  Wisdom  is  in  harmony  with 
the  revelation  contained  in  Law  and  Prophecy,  but  it  never  appeals 
to  it.  The  sajings  of  the  Wise  come  to  us  only  as  the  result  of 
their  own  reflections,  in  combination  with  the  general  tradition  of 
Wisdom. 

The  present  chapter  is  occupied  with  the  various  literary  forms 
in  which  this  Wisdom  literature  of  the  Bible  and 
Varieties  of  Wis-  ,\pQC]-ypha  is  conveyed  to  us.  The  two  chapters 
that  follow  will  treat  the  separate  Books  of  Wis- 
dom as  they  stand. 

The  starting-point  for  this  whole  class  of  literature  is  the  Proverb. 
There  were  two  sources  of  Hebrew  proverbs  :  Folk-lore,  and  the 

sayings  of  the  Wise  Men.  The  popular  proverbs 
The  Proverb  ,        ,?        ^  ,  ,  ,     , 

that  float  from  mouth  to  mouth  appear  only  by  acci- 
dent in  the  Bible.  "  Out  of  the  wicked  cometh  forth  wickedness  " 
is  an  ancient  saying  hurled  by  David  at  Saul,  in  the  wilderness  of 

Engedi,  when  Saul's  groundless  suspicions  of  him 

Popular  Proverbs     ,      f.  ,  T       ..  t     o      ,      ,  i 

had  just  been  exposed.  "  Is  Saul  also  among  the 
prophets?"  is  a  proverb  that  has  descended  from  those  days  to 
our  own. 

One  form  of  popular  proverb  was   the   Riddle  ;   and,  just  as 
great  part  of  the  intercourse  between  the  Wise  —  between  Solo- 
mon and  Hiram,   or  Solomon   and  the  Queen  of 
Riddles  Sheba  —  consisted  in  hard  questions   to  be  inter- 

preted, so  popular  festivities  made  opportunities  for  the  guessing 

for  example  of  life  and  instruction  of  manners ;  but  yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to 
establish  any  doctrine."  As  doctrinal  questions  are  excluded  from  this  work,  the 
distinction  does  not  here  apply.    The  two  books  are  of  the  highest  literary  interest. 


FOKMS   OF    WISDOM  LITERATURE  257 

of  riddles.  One  cycle  or  *  game  of  riddles '  has  been  preserved 
complete  in  the  Book  of  Judges.  It  connects  itself  naturally  with 
Samson,  whose  magnificent  frame  and  redundant 
high  spirits  make  him  the  nearest  approach  in  the 
Bible  to  a  humorous  personage.  Samson,  it  will  be  recollected, 
loved  a  woman  of  the  Philistines,  and  after  asking  her  hand  through 
his  father  went  down  to  Tiinnah  to  the  wedding  feast.  The  feast 
lasted  a  week,  during  which  the  hero  had  to  endure  the  company 
of  thirty  guests  from  the  Philistine  people  he  hated  and  despised. 
Denied  the  vent  of  physical  violence,  his  irritation  took  the  form 
of  a  wager  :  the  amount,  thirty  linen  garments  and  thirty  changes 
of  raiment ;  the  subject  of  contention,  that  the  Phihstines  would 
not  guess  his  riddle.     The  wager  was  accepted  and  the  riddle  put 

forth. 

Out  of  the  eater  came  forth  meat, 

And  out  of  the  strong  came  forth  sweetness. 

According  to  modern  notions  of  riddles,  Samson  was  not  playing 
fairly,  for  his  question  involved  information  exclusively  his  own. 
On  his  walks  to  and  fro  between  his  home  and  the  home  of  the 
bride  he  had  one  day  met  a  young  lion ;  the  Hon  roared  at  him, 
and  Samson,  by  a  sudden  impulse,  was  led  to  seize  the  brute  with 
his  bare  hands  and  tear  it  in  pieces  ;  the  next  time  he  passed  he 
found  a  cluster  of  bees  settled  in  the  torn  carcase  of  the  Hon,  and 
actually  tasted  their  honey :  this  strange  conjunction  was  the 
foundation  of  his  riddle.  But  the  Philistine  guests,  in  their  turn, 
could  violate  fair  play ;  they  brought  pressure  upon  the  bride, 
and  she  coaxed  the  secret  out  of  her  lover.  At  the  end  of  the 
seven  days  the  Philistines  came  to  answer  the  riddle  ;  and  their 
answer,  like  the  original  question,  makes  a  single  couplet : 

What  is  sweeter  than  honey? 
And  what  is  stronger  than  a  lion? 

Samson  turns  upon  them  with  a  repartee  couched  in  the  same 
form  : 

If  ye  had  not  ploughed  with  my  heifer, 
Ye  had  not  found  out  my  riddle. 


25S  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

Samson,  with  his  usual  grim  humour,  slew  thirty  Philistines,  and  sent 
their  raiment  in  payment  of  the  wager  ;  then  went  home  in  dudgeon, 
and  left  the  bride,  who  was  soon  appropriated  by  another  husband. 

But  it  is  with  the  second  type  of  proverbs  that  we  are  mainly 

concerned.    The  single  couplet,  which  we  have  just 
The  Unit  Proverb  ,    .  .  ,  ,  .,,,-, 

noted  m  connection  with   popular   nddles,  is  the 

root  of  the  forms  taken  by  the  sayings  of  the  Wise  Men.^  Such 
a  proverb  may  be  defined  as  a  unit  of  thought  in  a  unit  of  form. 
These  Unit  Proverbs  exhibit  two  varieties.  In  one  tj'pe  the 
thought  is  conveyed  in  a  single  line,  and  the  other  line  of  the 
couplet  is  supplementan,-.  The  single  line  contains  all  that  philo- 
sophic reflection  requires ;  but  the  sense  of  form,  even  in  the 
simplest  Wisdom  Uterature,  is  so  strong  that  the  thought  mtist  be 
filled  out  to  the  dimensions  of  the  received  pattern  before  it  can 
obtain  currency  as  a  proverb. 

He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty. 
And  he  that  raleth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  citr. 

The  heart  knoweth  its  own  bitterness; 

And  a  stranger  doth  not  intermeddle  with  its  joy. 

The  supplement  in  these  two  examples  is  a  paraUel  to  the  main 
thought,  or  its  converse.  \Miere  the  essence  of  the  proverb  is 
deep  or  obscure,  the  supplementar)'  line  comes  to  interpret  it. 

The  fmit  of  the  righteous  is  a  tree  of  life; 
And  he  that  is  wise  w-inneth  souls. 

How  can  fruit  be  a  tree  ?  The  supplement  interprets  of  the  wise 
life  which  is  the  fruit  of  righteous  endeavour,  and  which  has  an 
attractive  force  on  all  around,  bringing  forth  in  them  lives  of  Hke 
righteousness.     The  supplement  may  precede  the  thought :  — 

1  The  triplet  is  not  entirely  absent  even  from  such  elementary  anihok^es  as 
that  constituting  ihe  second  book  of  our  Biblical  Pnverbs  (eg.  six.  7.  23 ;  com- 
pare xxiv.  27).  There  is  an  interesting  fonn  of  xinii  proverb  that  can  be  read 
either  as  a  couplet  or  triplet :  examples  are  Proverbs  x.  26 ;  and  especially  xxv.  3, 
12.  ao;  xxvi.  i,  3,  etc 


FORMS    OF    WISDOM  LITFRATURE  259 

The  Lord  hath  made  everything  for  its  own  end: 
Yea,  even  the  wicked  for  the  day  of  evil. 

The  point  of  this  proverb  is  clearly  that  the  wicked  exist  for  the 
purpose  of  being  destroyed  :  the  statement  is  made  the  fuller  by 
the  reminder  that  everything  has  its  purpose.  Two  proverbs  may 
be  made  out  of  the  same  thought  with  different  supplements. 

Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  evil  man  shall  not  be  unpunished : 
But  the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall  be  delivered. 

*  * 
* 

Everyone  that  is  proud  in  heart  is  an  abomination  to  the  Lord. 

Though  hand  join  in  hand,  he  shall  not  be  unpunished. 

In  the  other  variety  of  Unit  Proverb  there  is  no  room  for 
supplementary  matter  :  the  thought,  which  is  the  essence  of  the 
saying,  requires  the  whole  of  the  proverb  for  its  expression,  and 
is  distributed  through  the  two  lines  of  the  couplet. 

It  is  naught,  it  is  naught,  saith  the  buyer: 
But  when  he  is  gone  his  way,  then  he  boasteth. 

* 
He  kisseth  the  lips 
That  giveth  a  right  answer. 

To  this  variety  belong  the  large  class  of  proverbs  which  are 
founded  on  a  comparison. 

As  vinegar  to  the  teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes, 
So  is  the  sluggard  to  them  that  send  him. 

*  * 

* 

A  rebuke  entereth  deeper  into  one  that  hath  understanding 
Than  an  hundred  stripes  into  a  fool. 

Seven  days  are  the  days  of  mourning  for  the  dead; 

But  for  a  fool  and  an  ungodly  man,  all  the  days  of  his  life. 

*  * 

The  fining  pot  is  for  silver,  and  the  furnace  for  gold, 
And  a  man  is  tried  by  his  praise. 


260 


BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 


The  Unit  Proverb 
as  the  germ  of 
Wisdom  Litera- 
ture 


It  appears,  then,  that  the  parallel  couplet,  which  we  have  seen 
as  the  most  elementan*  typ>e  of  Hebrew  verse,  is  also  the  fixed  form 
for  the  Unit  Proverb  of  Philosophy,  a  department 
that  naturally  belongs  to  prose.  The  Unit  Proverb 
thus  makes  a  meeting-point  for  prose  and  verse. 
The  Wisdom  literature,  developing  from  this  as  germ, 
takes  two  directions,  and  for  even.'  poetic  form  which  it  throws  off 
a  corresponding  form  of  prose  is  to  be  found.  This  will  be  best 
conveyed  by  a  table. 

Unit  Proverb 

geiTO 
tending  Verse-wards       ]       tending  Prose-wanJs 


Epigram 

germ  vith  Verse 
expansion 


Maxim 

germ  with  Prose 
comment 


Sonnet 

theme  with  high  paral- 
lelism 


Essay 

theme  with  miscellaneous 
thoughts  gathered  round  it 


Fixed  Sonnet       Free  Sonnet       Proverb  Cluster       Essay  Proper 


fixed  to  one 

particular 
ntunber  form 


:ree  lo  assume 

high  parallelism 

of  any  kind 


the  details 

fixed  to  gnomic 

form 


gnomic  details 

freely 

worked  up 


Dramatic  Monologue 

br  ar.racvon  so  Drama 


Rhetoric  Encomium 

by  attraction  to  Rhetoric 


On  the  side  of  verse,  we  have  first  the  Epigram.     It  will  be 

remembered  that  the  epigrams  of  antiquity  did  not  necessarily 

exhibit  the  pointedness  of  expression  and  flash  of 

The  Bpi  gram  ....  ,  ,.  •  t       t 

v\nt  which  modem  literature  associates  ^vith  the 
name.  A  Greek  epigram  needed  nothing  more  than  the  concise 
expression  of  a  complete  thought  within  the  limits  of  a  few  coup- 
lets. The  Hebrew  epigrams  may  be  said  to  be  more  pointed 
than  the  Greek,  since  each  has  buried  in  it  one  of  these  '  gnomes ' 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  261 

or  unit  proverbs.  The  distinction  of  the  Epigram  is  that  two  of 
its  hnes  (not  necessarily  consecutive)  will  be  found  to  constitute 
a  gnomic  germ,  of  which  the  rest  is  the  expansion.  In  the  exam- 
ples to  be  quoted  these  lines  will  be  distinguished  by  itahcs.^ 

A  Chaplet  of  Instruction 
My  son.,  hear  the  instruction  of  thy  father. 

And  forsake  not  the  law  of  thy  mother  : 
For  they  shall  be  a  chaplet  of  grace  unto  thy  head, 
And  chains  about  thy  neck. 

*  * 
* 

The  Fall  of  the  Righteous  and  the  Wicked 

Lay  not  ivait,  0  wicked  man,  against  the  habitation  of  the  righteous  ; 

Spoil  not  his  resting  place  : 
For  a  righteous  man  falleth  seven  times,  and  riseth  up  again: 

But  the  wicked  are  overthrown  by  calamity. 

*  * 
* 

The  Fool's  Friends 

The  fool  will  say,  "  I  have  no  friend^ 

And  I  have  no  thanks  for  my  good  deeds  ; 
And  they  that  eat  my  bread  are  of  evil  tongue." 

How  oft,  and  of  how  many,  shall  he  be  laughed  to  scorn  ! 

In  each  case  the  lines  italicised  would  stand  alone  as  a  unit  prov- 
erb. In  the  first  example  a  second  proverb  is  added  to  support 
the  first.  In  the  other  two  cases,  each  line  of  the  germ  saying  is 
followed  by  another  line  enforcing  or  interpreting  it.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  germ  proverb  need  not  be  at  the  commencement ; 
in  the  example  that  follows  it  comes  at  the  end. 

Gluttony 

Hear  thou,  my  son,  and  be  wise, 

And  guard  thy  heart  in  the  way. 

Be  not  among  winebibbers; 

Among  gluttonous  eaters  of  flesh  : 

For  the  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty. 
And  drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

1  References  to  the  examples  in  this  chapter  are  omitted,  as  the  Epigrams,  Essays, 
etc.,  are  cited  by  their  titles  in  the  table  of  Appendix  II. 


262  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

To  make  longer  epigrams,  we  find  the  first  line  of  a  unit  prov- 
erb buttressed  by  a  parallel  line,  while  to  the  second  a  full 
explanation  is  appended. 

Hospitality  of  the  Evil  Eye 

Eat  ihoii  7iot  the  bread  of  him  that  hath  an  evil  eye. 
Neither  desire  thou  his  dainties: 

For  as  one  that  reckoneth  within  himself,  so  is  he 

Eat  and  drink,  saith  he  to  thee, 

But  his  heart  is  not  with  thee. 

The  morsel  which  thou  hast  eaten  shalt  thou  vomit  up, 

And  lose  thy  sweet  words. 


Wisdom  and  Honey 

My  son,  eat  thou  honey,  for  it  is  good  ; 

And  the  honeycomb,  which  is  sweet  to  thy  taste; 

So  shalt  thou  knozu  luisdom  to  be  unto  thy  soul  : 
If  thou  hast  found  it,  then  shall  there  be  a  reward, 
And  thy  hope  shall  not  be  cut  off. 

More  elaborate  in  structure  is  the  epigram  of  Lemuel's  mother : 
first,  each  line  of  the  germ  proverb  is  supported  by  a  parallel  line, 
then  each  has  a  whole  quatrain  antithetical  to  it. 

Kings  and  Wine 

It  is  not  for  kings,  O  Lenitiel,  it  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine. 

Nor  for  princes  to  say,  Where  is  strong  drink? 
Lest  they  drink,  and  forget  the  law. 
And  pervert  the  judgement  of  any  that  is  afflicted. 

Give  strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready  to  perish, 

And  wine  unto  the  bitter  in  soul: 

Let  him  drink,  and  forget  his  poverty, 

And  remember  his  misery  no  more. 
Open  thy  mouth  for  the  dumb, 
In  the  cause  of  all  such  as  are  left  desolate. 
Open  thy  mouth,  judge  righteouslv, 
And  minister  judgement  to  the  pour  and  needy. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  263 

Exactly  corresponding  to  these  Epigrams  in  verse  we  find,  on 
the    prose    side,   compositions   that    will    here   be        ., 
called  Maxims.^     Their  form  is  that  of  a  text  with 
a  comment ;    a  germ   proverb  (or  the  essential  words  of  it)   is 
merged  in  what  is  a  prose  expansion  of  the  same. 

Wisdom  is  as  good  as  an  inheritance :  yea,  more  excellent  is  it  for 
them  that  see  the  sun.  For  wisdom  is  a  defence,  even  as  money  is 
a  defence  :  but  the  excellency  of  knowledge  is,  that  wisdom  preserveth 
the  life  of  him  that  hath  it. 


Make  fiot  tnerry  in  mttch  luxury ;  neither  be  tied  to  the  expense 
thereof.  Be  not  made  a  beggar  by  banqueting  upon  borrowing  when 
thou  hast  nothing  in  thy  purse.  A  workman  that  is  a  drunkard 
shall  not  become  rich. 


The  ivords  of  a  -wise  man^s  mouth  are  gracious  ;  but  the  lips  of  a 
fool  zuill  swallow  up  himself.  The  beginning  of  the  words  of  his 
mouth  is  foolishness :  and  the  end  of  his  talk  is  mischievous  madness. 
A  fool  also  multiplieth  words:  yet  man  knoweth  not  what  shall  be; 
and  that  which  shall  be  after  him,  who  can  tell  him? 

These  are  among  the  shorter  maxims ;  longer  examples  are  to 
be  found  in  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes. 

Two  are  better  than  one;  because  they  have  a  good  reward  for 
their  labour.  For  if  they  fall,  one  will  lift  up  his  fellow :  but  woe  to 
him  that  is  alone  when  he  falleth,  and  hath  not  another  to  lift  him 
up.  Again,  if  two  lie  together,  then  they  have  warmth :  but  how 
can  one  be  warm  alone?  And  if  a  man  prevail  against  him  that  is 
alone,  two  shall  withstand  him;  and  a  threefold  cord  is  not  quickly 
broken. 

1  I  am  not  aware  of  any  English  term  that  exactly  describes  the  class  of  compo- 
sitions here  brought  forward.  The  word  '  maxim  '  in  English  is  used  loosely.  Mr. 
Joseph  Jacobs  in  his  (Golden  Treasury)  edition  of  Gracian  contends,  not  without 
reason,  that  the  term  has  a  special  application  to  sayings  which  are  practical  and 
not  meditative.  At  the  same  time  the  '  maxims'  he  is  editing  have  a  closer  resem- 
blance to  this  form  of  text  and  comment  than  anything  outside  Biblical  Wisdom. 


264  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

As  with  the  epigram,  the  text  is  not  necessarily  at  the  commence- 
ment, but  may  be  absorbed  into  the  body  of  the  maxim. 

Speak  not  one  against  another,  brethren.  He  that  speaketh  against 
a  brother^  or  judgeth  his  brother,  speakeUi  against  the  lata,  and  judgeth 
the  law :  but  if  thou  judgest  the  law,  thou  art  not  a  doer  of  the  law, 
but  a  judge.  One  only  is  the  lawgiver  and  judge,  even  he  who  is  able 
to  save  and  to  destroy :  but  who  art  thou  that  judgest  thy  neighbour? 

The  germ  of  this  maxim  is  the  paradox,  "  He  that  speaketh  against 
a  brother  speaketh  against  the  law^\-  and  it  illustrates  how  much 
thought  can  be  packed  into  one  of  these  gnomic  sentences.  The 
Apostle  is  writing  to  those  whose  reverence  for  '  the  law '  had 
amounted  to  a  superstition ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  underlying  ideas 
of  the  whole  epistle  that  the  Christian's  '  liberty '  is,  not  a  laxer, 
but  a  higher  law.  In  this  saying  the  writer  lays  down  that  one 
w^ho  is  censorious  against  another  is  impugning  his  brother's 
liberty  of  action,  is  therefore  impugning  that  which  the  new  dis- 
pensation has  made  the  highest  law. 

Continuing  to  follow  the  prose  side  of  our  table,  we  are  brought 
to  that  which  may  be  considered  the  most  important  of  the  forms 
assumed  by  Wisdom  literature  —  the  Essay.  The 
word  has  been  used  somewhat  loosely  in  modern 
speech,  but  it  essentially  implies  two  things  :  first,  a  composition 
professing  only  a  fragmentary  treatment  of  a  subject ;  and  sec- 
ondly, that  the  details  of  this  composition  need  have  no  mutual 
bond  except  their  relevancy  to  the  topic  which  stands  as  tide  of 
the  Essay.  If  more  than  this  goes  to  any  composition — if,  for 
example,  there  is  methodical  arrangement  or  formal  investigation 
—  then  the  name  *  treatise  '  would  be  more  proper ;  the  Essay  is 
bound  to  nothing  beyond  miscellaneous  thoughts  collected  around 
a  common  theme.  This  description  applies  to  the  Essays  of  the 
Bible  and  Apocrypha  ;  but  upon  these  a  further  characteristic  is 
stamped  by  their  gnomic  origin.  Indeed,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  recognise  a  type  of  composition  which  makes  a  half-way  stage 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  265 

between  the  Proverb  and  the  Essay.  This  we  shall  call  the 
'Proverb  Cluster' :  a  number  of  proverbs  (includ- 

Proverb  Clusters 

ing  maxnns  and  epigrams)  are  collected  together 
around  a  common  theme,  each  retaining  its  independence  and 
fixed  gnomic  form.  To  make  an  Essay,  the  component  parts  are 
freely  worked  together  into  a  new  style /j  though  the  Wisdom 
Essays  continually  suggest  their  gnomic  origin,  and  often  a  con- 
siderable number  of  their  sentences  will  stand  as  independent 
proverbs. 

We  are  able,  in  the  literature  which  has  come  down  to  us,  to 
watch  the  process  by  which  Essays  have  been  evolved  out  of 
Proverbs.     I  propose  to  bring  this  out  by  placing  ^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^f 
side  by  side  three  compositions  ;  the  matter  of  the   Essays  out  of 
three  is  largely  the  same,  and  it  is  clear  that  the  ^"^"^^""^^ 
later  authors  have  borrowed  from  the  earlier ;  in  form,  they  repre- 
sent three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  Essay. 

On  the  Government  of  the  Tongue 

Winnow  not  with  every  wind,  and  walk  not  in  every  path:  thus 
doeth  the  sinner  that  hath  a  double  tongue. 

Be  stedfast  in  thy  understanding;    and  let  thy  word  be  one. 

Be  swift  to  hear;    and  with  patience  make  thine  answer. 

If  thou  hast  understanding,  answer  thy  neighbour;  and  if  not, 
let  thy  hand  be  upon  thy  mouth. 

Glory  and  dishonour  is  in  talk  :  and  the  tongue  of  a  man  is  his 
fall. 

Be  not  called  a  whisperer;  and  lie  not  in  wait  with  thy  tongue: 
for  upon  the  thief  there  is  shame,  and  an  evil  condemnation  upon 
him  that  hath  a  double  tongue. 

In  a  great  matter  and  in  a  small,  be  not  ignorant;  and  instead  of 
a  friend  become  not  an  enemy;  for  an  evil  name  shall  inherit  shame 
and  reproach:   even  so  shall  the  sinner  that  hath  a  doul:)Ie  tongue. 

The  above  is  plainly  a  Proverb  Cluster :  each  paragraph  is  an 
independent  saying,  which  has  a  bearing  upon  the  general  subject, 
but  no  bond  with  the  other  paragraphs ;  any  one  of  these  could 
be  removed  without  the  unity  of  the  whole  being  affected.     In 


266  BIBUCAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

tdie  extiact  vliich  nest  faDofss^  ououxulive  seiitfwys  hanre  fased 
together  into  connectediiess  of  tboi^jht;  but  tfaae  stfll  lemam  a 
conadeiable  munber  (rf^  tbem  vfaidi  make  cooqilele  pioreifas,  and 
some  of  these  coold  be  cut  oat  wiiiHMit  damage  to  the  lesL 


If  tkim  faloMr  a  sfiaafc.  k  sihal  hn;  if  Om  ^  Mfom.  it.  it  ddD 
be  qKsckd:  aad  boHi  Oise  AdI  oowe  art  of  tifagp  BoaO. 
Carse  the  trinspcRr  aad  dadbfe-tmgMd:  far  he  haik  deStxafcd 
■nay  Alt  were  at  peace.  A  Akd  peEsaai^  toagae  hiA  ^afcea 
mmmg,  and  iUpy^*^  tl«H  fraaa  aatiaB  fen  aalBoa;  aad  it  hiA 
pdkd  dvna  Sbrang  ciliE^  aad  oiothnam  Ike  laiases  of  great 
1KB.  A  dukd  peisda'^  tnagae  haA  ca^  oat  faEXse  aiiaar.a  aad 
dqaived  Aen  of  Aek  Uboas.  He  l&at  Warikfarth  aato  it  sUi 
Bot  iad  VIA,  mm:  shal  he  dwell  qneilr.  The  Shake  of  a  «hqp 
^dkelh  a  aat  ia  the  flesh;  iMt  tibe  stnifce  off  a  tiiafta?  vril  break 
boaes.  ilaaf  haie  fallcB  h^f  die  edge  of  &e  siratd:  jet  aot  so 
maf  e  A^  thadt  have  faflea  becaase  af  Oe  toagae.  Happfishe 
Chrt  s  shdtered  iraaa  i^  that  hath  aot  passed  Ama^  the  math 
aereaf;  Oat  hadi  aot  dnnra  its  vake,  aad  haA  aot'beca  boaad 
wjljk  iti  baa^^  For  the  joke  dbereol'  s  a  joke  af  iraa.  aad  the 
faa^  Oerenf  are  baads  of  faa&  The  deaA  thereof  is  aa  evil 
deaA;  aad  Hades  were  better  Aaa  iL  tt  dal  aot  hare  ntt  over 
godfy  aea;  aad  Aew  AaM  aot  be  bamed  ia  its  flaMe.  Thqp  Aat 
faeake  &e  Lord  dalB  fidi  into  it,  aad  it  ^haD  bam  iianag  thea^ 
aoad  sfal  aott  be  qaeached:  it  dnil  be  seat  liorlh  ^oa  then  as  a 
Boa;  aadasaleopuditshalldeattra^taKm.  Look  thrt  Ooa  hedlge 
Oj  possessiaa  abort  aiA  thoras;  laad  ap  Af  aa«er  aad  Of  gold; 
aad  i^kx  a  ve^^  aad  a  l"*"^  far  tOqr  aonds;  aad  mabt  a  door 
aad  a  bar  far  Af-  mm^.  Take  heed  hat  Aoa  ^1^  Aereia;  lest 
Aoa  fal  befare  oae  Aat  GeA  ia  wail. 

The  difleience  between  this  passage  and  diat  which  foOoss  k 
onlf  one  of  d^^ee.  When  tibe  same  topic  is  ptesented  hf  Sl 
James,  ve  find  connectedness  of  thoq^  Tuning  thraogbonit,  and 
the  free  floar  of  Essar  dtfle  has  prevailed  completdf  over  the 
independence  of  sentences  diatbdang  to  proveifas;  onfyhoeand 
there  the  tnra  of  a  sentence  reminds  ie  of  die  gnomic  oiigin  of 
this  dass  of  Essaj. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  267 

The  Responsibility  of  Speech 

Be  not  many  teachers,  my  brethren,  knowing  that  we  shall  receive 
heavier  judgement.  For  in  many  things  we  all  stumble.  If  any  stum- 
bleth  not  in  word,  the  same  is  a  perfect  man,  able  to  bridle  the 
whole  body  also.  Now  if  we  put  the  horses'  bridles  into  their 
mouths,  that  they  may  obey  us,  we  turn  about  their  whole  body 
also.  Behold,  the  ships  also,  though  they  are  so  great,  and  are  driven 
by  rough  winds,  are  yet  turned  about  by  a  very  small  rudder,  whither 
the  impulse  of  the  steersman  willeth.  So  the  tongue  also  is  a  little 
member,  and  boasteth  great  things.  Behold,  how  much  wood  is 
kindled  by  how  small  a  fire  !  And  the  tongue  is  a  fire  :  the  world  of 
iniquity  among  our  members  is  the  tongue,  which  defileth  the  whole 
body,  and  setteth  on  fire  the  wheel  of  nature,  and  is  set  on  fire  by 
hell.  For  every  kind  of  beasts  and  birds,  of  creeping  things  and 
things  in  the  sea,  is  tamed,  and  hath  been  tamed  by  mankind :  but 
the  tongue  can  no  man  tame;  it  is  a  restless  evil,  it  is  full  of  deadly 
poison.  Therewith  bless  we  the  Lord  and  Father;  and  therewith 
curse  we  men,  which  are  made  after  the  likeness  of  God :  out  of  the 
same  mouth  cometh  forth  blessing  and  cursing.  My  brethren,  these 
things  ought  not  so  to  be.  Doth  the  fountain  send  forth  from  the 
same  opening  sweet  water  and  bitter?  can  a  fig  tree,  my  brethren, 
yield  olives,  or  a  vine  figs?     Neither  can  salt  water  yield  sweet. 

There  is  a  whole  Hterature  of  essays  in  the  Wisdom  books  of 
the  Bible  and  the  Apocrypha.  They  are  not  essays  in  the  more 
modern  sense  which  the  English  reader  associates 

...  ,-  T        1   TV  r  1  1  1  1  Wisdom  Essays 

With  the  name  of  Lord  jNlacaulay  :  but  they  rather 
represent  the  oldest  type  of  such  compositions,  to  which  contribu- 
tions were  made  by  Bacon  and  by  ^Montaigne,  by  Feltham  and  by  the 
author  of  the  Aficrocosmography.  Indeed,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  these  writers  (Montaigne  excepted)  owed  largely  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Ecclesiasticus  and  kindred  books  the  sententiousness  of 
their  style  and  the  asyndeton  of  their  sentences.  But  in  the  case 
of  these  essays  the  same  difificulty  confronts  the  literary  reader 
which  has  been  pointed  out  in  reference  to  other  departments.  In 
the  form  in  which  our  Bibles  are  presented  to  us  the  separate 
essays  are  allowed  to  run  together  without  break,  and  the  titles  so 
essential  to  this  kind  of  writing  are  wholly  wanting.     I  have  endeav- 


26S  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

oured  to  meet  this  difficulty  by  indicating  in  the  Appendix  ^  to  this 
work  the  separate  essays,  and  suggesting  appropriate  titles.  And 
here,  as  elsewhere,  I  would  advise  the  reader  to  mark  such  divi- 
sions and  titles  in  his  Bible  and  Apocrypha,  before  he  attempts  to 
appreciate  the  literary  character  of  these  compositions. 

At  this  point  I  can  do  nothing  but  illustrate.     Of  the  shorter 
essays  a  good  specimen  is  that  of  Ecclesiasticus  on  Gossip. 

On  Gossip 
He  that  is  hasty  to  trust  is  lightminded;  and  he  that  sinneth  shall 
offend  against  his  own  soul.  He  that  maketh  merry  in  his  heart 
shall  be  condemned;  and  he  that  hateth  talk  hath  the  less  wicked- 
ness. Never  repeat  what  is  told  thee,  and  thou  shall  fare  never  the 
worse.  Whether  it  be  of  friend  or  foe,  tell  it  not;  and  if  thou  canst 
without  sin,  reveal  not  the  matter;  for  he  hath  heard  thee  and 
observed  thee,  and  when  the  time  cometh  he  will  hate  thee.  Hast 
thou  heard  a  word  ?  let  it  die  with  thee :  be  of  good  courage,  it  will 
not  burst  thee.  A  fool  will  travail  in  pain  with  a  word,  as  a  woman 
in  labour  with  a  child.  As  an  arrow  that  sticketh  in  the  flesh  of  the 
thigh,  so  is  a  word  in  a  fool's  belly.  Reprove  a  friend;  it  may  be 
he  did  it  not;  and  if  he  did  it,  that  he  may  do  it  no  more.  Reprove 
thy  neighbour;  it  may  be  he  said  it  not;  and  if  he  hath  said  it,  that 
he  may  not  say  it  again.  Reprove  a  friend,  for  many  times  there  is 
slander:  and  trust  not  every  word.  There  is  one  that  slippeth,  and 
not  from  the  heart :  and  who  is  he  that  hath  not  sinned  with  his 
tongue?  Reprove  thy  neighbour  before  thou  threaten  him;  and  give 
place  to  the  law  of  the  Most  High. 

This  essay  is  one  of  those  in  which  gnomic  verses  abound.  In 
the  next  they  are  rare,  and  the  whole  essay  strikes  a  higher  key. 

Prosperity  and  Adversity  are  from  the  Lord 

There  is  one  that  toileth,  and  laboureth,  and  maketh  haste,  and 
is  so  much  the  more  behind.  There  is  one  that  is  sluggish,  and 
hath  need  of  help,  lacking  in  strength,  and  that  aboundeth  in 
poverty;  and  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  looked  upon  him  for  good, 
and  he  set  him  up  from  his  low  estate,  and  lifted  up  his  head; 
and  many  marvelled  at  him.     Good  things  and  evil,  life  and  death, 

1  See   Ecclesiastes,  Ecclesiasticus,    Wisdom,   St.  James,  in   the   Literary   Index 
(Appendix  I) ;  or  the  Table  of  Wisdom  Literature  in  Appendix  IL 


FORMS    OF    WISDOM  LirERATURE  269 

poverty  and  riches,  are  from  the  Lord.  The  gift  of  the  Lord  remain- 
eth  with  the  godly,  and  his  good  pleasure  shall  prosper  for  ever. 
There  is  that  waxeth  rich  by  his  wariness  and  pinching,  and  this  is 
the  portion  of  his  reward :  when  he  saith,  I  have  found  rest,  and 
now  will  I  eat  of  my  goods;  yet  he  knoweth  not  what  time  shall 
pass,  and  he  shall  leave  them  to  others,  and  die.  Be  stedfast  in  thy 
covenant,  and  be  conversant  therein,  and  wax  old  in  thy  work.  Mar- 
vel not  at  the  works  of  a  sinner;  but  trust  the  Lord,  and  abide  in 
thy  labour :  for  it  is  an  easy  thing  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  swiftly  on 
the  sudden  to  make  a  poor  man  rich.  The  blessing  of  the  Lord  is  in 
the  reward  of  the  godly;  and  in  an  hour  that  cometh  swiftly  he  mak- 
eth  his  blessing  to  flourish.  Say  not,  what  use  is  there  of  me?  and 
what  from  henceforth  shall  my  good  things  be?  Say  not,  I  have 
sufficient,  and  from  henceforth  what  harm  shall  happen  unto  me? 
In  the  day  of  good  things  there  is  a  forgetfulness  of  evil  things;  and 
in  the  day  of  evil  things  a  man  will  not  remember  things  that  are 
good.  For  it  is  an  easy  thing  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  to  reward  a 
man  in  the  day  of  death  according  to  his  ways.  The  affliction  of  an 
hour  causeth  forgetfulness  of  delight;  and  in  the  last  end  of  a  man 
is  the  revelation  of  his  deeds.  Call  no  man  blessed  before  his  death; 
and  a  man  shall  be  known  in  his  children. 

I  fallow  this  with  one  of  the  longer  essays,  one  marked  also  by 
a  greater  variety  of  style. 

On  Counsel  and  Counsellors 

Every  counsellor  extolleth  counsel;  but  there  is  that  counselleth 
for  himself.  Let  thy  soul  beware  of  a  counsellor,  and  know  thou  be- 
fore what  is  his  interest  (for  he  will  counsel  for  himself);  lest  he 
cast  the  lot  upon  thee,  and  say  unto  thee,  Thy  way  is  good :  and  he 
will  stand  over  against  thee,  to  see  what  shall  befall  thee.  Take 
not  counsel  with  one  that  looketh  askance  at  thee;  and  hide  thy 
counsel  from  such  as  are  jealous  of  thee.  Take  not  counsel  with  a 
woman  about  her  rival;  neither  with  a  coward  about  war;  nor  with 
a  merchant  about  exchange;  nor  with  a  liuyer  about  selling;  nor 
with  an  envious  man  about  thankfulness;  nor  with  an  unmerciful 
man  about  kindliness;  nor  with  a  sluggard  about  any  kind  of  work; 
nor  with  a  hireling  in  thy  house  about  finishing  his  work;  nor  with 
an  idle  servant  about  much  business :  give  not  heed  to  these  in  any 
matter  of  counsel.  But  rather  be  continually  with  a  godly  man, 
whom  thou  shall  have  known  to  be  a  keeper  of  the  commandments, 


270  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

who  in  his  soul  is  as  thine  own  soul,  and  who  will  grieve  with  thee, 
if  thou  shalt  miscarry.  And  make  the  counsel  of  thy  heart  to  stand; 
for  there  is  none  more  faithful  unto  thee  than  it.  For  a  man's  soul 
is  sometime  wont  to  bring  him  tidings,  more  than  seven  watchmen 
that  sit  on  high  on  a  watch-tower.  And  above  all  this  entreat  the 
Most  High,  that  he  may  direct  thy  way  in  truth.  Let  reason  be  the 
beginning  of  every  work,  and  let  counsel  go  before  every  action. 

As  a  token  of  the  changing  of  the  heart,  four  manner  of  things  do 
rise  up,  good  and  evil,  life  and  death;  and  that  which  ruleth  over 
them  continually  is  the  tongue.  There  is  one  that  is  shrewd  and  the 
instructor  of  many,  and  yet  is  unprofitable  to  his  own  soul.  There 
is  one  that  is  subtle  in  words,  and  is  hated;  he  shall  be  destitute  of 
all  food:  for  grace  was  not  given  him  from  the  Lord;  because  he  is 
deprived  of  all  wisdom.  There  is  one  that  is  wise  to  his  own  soul; 
and  the  fruits  of  his  understanding  are  trustworthy  in  the  mouth.  A 
wise  man  will  instruct  his  own  people;  and  the  fruits  of  his  under- 
standing are  trustworthy.  A  wise  man  shall  be  filled  with  blessing; 
and  aU  they  that  see  him  shall  call  him  happy.  The  life  of  man  is 
numbered  by  days;  and  the  days  of  Israel  are  innumerable  :  the  wise 
man  shall  inherit  confidence  among  his  ^leople,  and  his  name  shall 
live  for  ever. 

The  second  paragraph  of  this  essay  has  an  obscurity  which  is  rare 
in  Wisdom  Uterature.  The  hne  of  thought  seems  to  be  as  follows. 
Man's  whole  experience  for  good  or  evil  depends  upon  the  direc- 
tion of  his  purposes ;  and  a  force  continually  influencing  these 
purposes  is  the  speech  of  his  fellowmen.  Hence  the  importance 
of  marking  the  character  of  those  who  counsel.  One  type  has  the 
power  of  imparting  instruction,  but  no  morale  to  make  the  in- 
struction worth  having :  for  all  his  wisdom  he  is  unprofitable  to 
his  own  soul.  One  is  false  in  speech,  and  so  wholly  hateful.  A 
third  has  his  wisdom  bounded  by  selfishness  ;  but  what  he  is  willing 
to  speak  will  be  worth  marking.  The  truly  wise  will  have  not  only 
wisdom  but  also  the  desire  to  impart  it  to  his  fellow-countrymen ; 
his  blessedness  will  be  as  much  beyond  that  of  the  other  as  a 
nation  is  wider  and  more  lasting  than  an  individual. 

As  a  final  example,  I  cite  an  essay  of  St.  James,  to  show  how  wide- 
reaching  a  treatment  of  how  profound  a  subject  can  be  compressed 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  this  fragmentary  form  of  composition. 


FORMS   OF    WISDOM  LITERATURE  271 

On  the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Man 

Blessed  is  the  man  that  endureth  temptation :  for  when  he  hath 
been  approved,  he  shall  receive  the  crown  of  life,  which  the  Lord 
promised  to  them  that  love  him.  Let  no  man  say  when  he  is 
tempted,  I  am  tempted  of  God :  for  God  cannot  be  tempted  with 
evil,  and  he  himself  tempteth  no  man :  but  each  man  is  tempted, 
when  he  is  drawn  away  by  his  own  lust,  and  enticed.  Then  the 
lust  when  it  hath  conceived,  beareth  sin;  and  the  sin,  when  it  is 
full-grown,  bringeth  forth  death.  Be  not  deceived,  my  beloved 
brethren. 

Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  boon  is  from  above,  coming 
down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with  whom  can  be  no  variation, 
neither  shadow  that  is  cast  by  turning.  Of  his  own  will  he  brought 
us  forth  by  the  word  of  truth,  that  we  should  be  a  kind  of  first-fruits 
of  his  creatures.  Know  ye  this,  my  beloved  brethren;  but  let  every 
man  be  swift  to  hear,  slow  to  speak;  slow  to  wrath,  —  for  the  wrath 
of  man  worketh  not  the  righteousness  of  God.  Wherefore  putting 
away  all  filthiness  and  overflowing  of  wickedness,  receive  with  meek- 
ness the  inborn  word,  which  is  able  to  save  your  souls.  But  be  ye 
doers  of  the  word,  and  not  hearers  only,  deluding  your  own  selves. 
For  if  any  one  is  a  hearer  of  the  word,  and  not  a  doer,  he  is  like  unto 
a  man  beholding  his  natural  face  in  a  mirror :  for  he  beholdeth  him- 
self, and  goeth  away,  and  straightway  forgetteth  what  manner  of  man 
he  was.  But  he  that  looketh  into  the  perfect  law,  the  law  of  liberty, 
and  so  continueth,  being  not  a  hearer  that  forgetteth,  but  a  doer  that 
worketh,  this  man  shall  be  blessed  in  his  doing.  If  any  man  thinketh 
himself  to  be  religious,  while  he  bridleth  not  his  tongue  but  deceiveth 
his  heart,  this  man's  religion  is  vain.  Pure  religion  and  undefiled 
before  our  God  and  Father  is  this,  to  visit  the  fatherless  and  widows 
in  their  affliction,  and  to  keep  himself  unspotted  from  the  world. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  elsewhere  so  complete  and  harmo- 
nious a  theory  stated  in  so  brief  a  space.  The  question  is  of  the 
origin  of  the  Evil  and  Good  within  us.  The  author  strikes  the 
keynote  of  Temptation  —  the  struggle  in  us  between  ,  Evil  and 
(iood.     Echoing  a  saying  oi  Ecclesiasticus,  he  warns    ^ 

■^        °  '  EcClUS.  XV,  II 

us  agamst  the  delusion  that  temptation  to  evil  could 
come  from  (iod.     The  true  origin  of  evil  he  illustrates  by  the  im- 
age of  childbirth  :   it  is  the  fruit  of  a  union  between  the  individual 


272  BIBUCAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

man —  that  is,  man's  Will* — and  his  Last ;  «i1t  when  these  hare 
consented  together  is  evil  bom,  and  such  a  anion  is  not  a  marriage, 
hot  a  seduction.  The  genn  of  eril  thus  accounted  loCy  the  Apostle 
proceeds  to  its  fbither  development ;  and  this  he  explains  by  the 
same  image  of  childbirth,  carried  on  to  a  second  generation. 
Turning,  then,  to  the  question  of  Good,  Sl  James  continues  the 
imagery  of  childbirth  ;  a  union  is  Ijinted  at  between  "  The  Will  of 
God  "  and  "  The  Word  of  Truth,"  as  a  result  of  which  there  exists 
in  each  individual  an  "  inborn  word  "  as  the  germ  of  Good.  As 
with  Evil,  so  here  the  writer  proceeds  to  the  development  of  such 
a  germ,  and  this  occupies  the  larger  part  of  the  essay.  The 
imagery  changes  to  that  of  listening :  laying  aside  obstacles  such 
as  wrath,  maUce,  filthiness,  we  are  with  patience  and  acnteness  of 
attention,  to  Usten  for  the  word  within  us.  But  one  more  condi- 
tion is  esential :  that  the  truth  in  proportion  as  it  is  caught  must 
be  carried  into  action.  To  enforce  this  principle,  the  remarkaUe 
illustration  of  a  mirror  is  used :  truth  that  is  seen  widioot  being 
acted  upon  is  compared  to  a  reflection  in  a  glass  that  vanishes  as 
soon  as  the  iasx.  is  turned  away.  But  how  is  this  image  to  be 
carried  on  to  express  the  man  who  hves  the  truth  he  sees?  Soch 
a  man  will  behold  truth  reflected  in  die  mirror  of  his  action :  but, 
in  accordance  with  one  of  the  main  ideas  of  his  epistle,  St.  James 
puts  it,  not  as  action  according  to  law,  but  action  according  to 
the  Christian  liberty,  which  is  the  highest  form  of  law.  \Mth  prac- 
tical examples  the  essay  concludes. 

I  now  turn  back  to  the  verse  side  of  AMsdom  literature.  Here 
we  find  a  das  of  compositions,  which,  like  the  Essay,  are  made 
up  of  miscellaneoas  thoughts  gathered  around  a 
common  theme.  Their  poetic  form  is  evidenced 
in  the  fec|  that,  not  only  are  they  composed  of  rhythmic  lines,  but 
also  their  parts  are  bound  together  by  high  parallelism  —  the 
parallelism,  that  is,  which  links  not  single  verses  only  bat  masses 

1  The  wording  of  the  conespondnig  section  in  the  second  pni^iaph  (tosc  iS 
of  St  Jmmes  i)  jnstiSes  this  inteipRtation. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  273 

of  lines,  or  again,  not  adjacent  lines,  but  portions  of  a  composition 
widely  separated.^  This  characteristic  can  be  best  conveyed  by 
illustration. 

On  Evil  Company 

My  son,  if  sinners  entice  thee, 

Consent  thou  not. 
If  they  say,  "  Come  with  us, 
Let  us  lay  wait  for  blood, 

Let  us  lurk  privily  for  the  innocent  without  cause; 
Let  us  swallow  them  up  alive  as  Sheol, 
And  whole,  as  those  that  go  down  into  the  pit ; 
We  shall  fmd  all  precious  substance, 
We  shall  fill  our  houses  with  spoil; 
Thou  shalt  cast  thy  lot  among  us; 
We  will  all  have  one  purse  :  " 

My  son,  walk  not  thou  in  the  way  with  them; 

Refrain  thy  foot  from  their  path : 

For  their  feet  run  to  evil, 

And  they  make  haste  to  shed  blood. 

For  in  vain  is  the  net  spread. 

In  the  eyes  of  any  bird; 

And  these  lay  wait  for  their  own  blood. 

They  lurk  privily  for  their  own  lives. 

So  are  the  ways  of  every  one  that  is  greedy  of  gain; 

It  taketh  away  the  life  of  the  owners  thereof. 

The  eye  catches  that  the  whole  of  this  poem,  after  the  opening 
couplet,  falls  into  two  blocks  of  lines ;  upon  examination  it  will  be 
found  that  the  block  of  lines  indented  to  the  left  are  all  of  them 
expansions  of  the  first  line  of  the  opening  couplet,  "  My  son,  if 
sinners  entice  thee,"  and  the  block  of  lines  indented  to  the  right 
are  expansions  of  the  second  line  of  the  couplet,  "  Consent  thou 
not."  Thus  it  appears  that  precisely  the  same  parallelism  which 
unites  the  two  opening  lines  into  a  couplet  of  verse  is  found  to  bind 
the  divisions  of  the  poem  itself  into  a  whole.  This  is  a  simple 
instance  of  the  higher  parallelism. 

What  is  the  proper  name  for  this  class  of  compositions?     To 

1  Above,  Chapter  II,  pages  74-5,  and  Appendix  III. 


27+  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY  OP    IVISDOM 

me  it  appears  that  their  position  in  relation  to  universal  literature 

is  expressed  by  calling  them  *  Sonnets.'     No  doubt  they  present 

one    palpable   difference    from  the  poems  we  are 

Difference  be-  i  i      •  ,         i  i 

tween  Hebrew       accustomed  to  designate  by  that  name  :  they  are 
and  English  not,  like  Italian  and  English  sonnets,  constructed  of 

exactly  fourteen  lines  each.  But  is  this  limitation 
to  fourteen  lines  the  essential  of  the  Sonnet,  or  is  it  only  a  matter 
of  prescriptive  usage  ?  I  would  contend  that  if  the  Sonnet  is  to 
rank  as  a  leading  poetic  type  in  universal  literature  its  principle 
must  be  deeper.  The  true  distinction  of  the  Sonnet,  like  that  of 
the  Fugue  in  music,  is  that  it  reverses  the  usual  order  of  things, 
and  presents  us  with  matter  adapting  itself  to  external  form.  The 
form  that  obtains  in  our  modern  poetry  is  the  arrangement  in 
fourteen  lines ;  accordingly,  the  thought  of  our  sonnets  must  be 
sufficient  to  fill  out  the  fourteen  lines,  it  must  not  be  too  wide  to 
be  compressed  into  that  space  ;  further  (in  the  Italian  sonnet)  the 
logical  connection  of  the  thoughts  must  be  such  as  will  fit  in  with 
the  division  of  the  fourteen  lines  into  a  set  of  eight  and  a  set  of 
six.  Now  it  is  impossible  to  read  the  Biblical  poems  under  dis- 
cussion without  feeling  that  here  too  we  have  thought  adapting 
itself  to  form ;  not,  of  course,  to  any  particular  number  of  lines, 
but  to  elaboration  of  parallelism  of  some  kind.  To  generalise,  we 
may  say  that  wherever  thought  runs  into  poetic  moulds  we  have 
the  spirit  of  the  Sonnet ;  it  belongs  to  the  individuality  of  different 
literatures  to  decide  whether  only  one  mould  shall  be  used,  or 
more  than  one.  Already  we  have  seen  a  difference  of  type  be- 
tween the  strict  Italian  sonnet  with  its  division  into  eight  and  six, 
and  the  English  sonnets  which  may  obser\'e  or  ignore  that  division. 
Hebrew  poetry  multiplies  that  difference  by  allowing  free  variety 
of  forms,  yet  still  leaving  in  its  sonnets  the  literary  impression  of 
matter  fitting  itself  to  form. 

These  Wisdom  poems  fall  into  two  distinct  types.    The  first  may 
be  called  the  Fixed  Sonnet :  it  is  fixed,  not  to  one 
particular  number  of  lines,  but  to  the  working  out 
of  a  number  form  indicated  in  the  opening  verses. 


FORMS    OF    WISDOM  LITERATURE  275 

Little  and  Wise 

There  be  four  things  which  are  httle  upon  the  earth, 

But  they  are  exceeding  wise  : 
The  ants  are  a  people  not  strong, 

Yet  they  provide  their  meat  in  the  summer; 
The  conies  are  but  a  feeble  folk, 

Yet  make  they  their  houses  in  the  rocks; 
The  locusts  have  no  king, 

Yet  go  they  forth  all  of  them  by  bands; 
The  lizard  thou  canst  seize  with  thy  hands, 

Yet  is  she  in  kings'  palaces. 


What  Wisdom  loves  and  hates 

In  three  things  I  was  beautified. 
And  stood  up  beautiful  before  the  Lord  and  men : 
The  concord  of  brethren, 
And  friendship  of  neighbours. 
And  a  woman  and  her  husband  that  walk  together  in  agree- 
ment. 

But  three  sorts  of  men  my  soul  hateth. 
And  I  am  greatly  offended  at  their  life : 
A  poor  man  that  is  haughty, 
A  rich  man  that  is  a  liar. 
And  an  old  man  that  is  an  adulterer  lacking  understanding. 

The  number  form  is  usually  reached  by  a  progression. 

The  Unsatisfied 

The  horseleach  hath  two  daughters,  called   Give,  Give; 
There  are  three  things  that  are  never  satisfied, 
Yea,  four  that  say  not,  Enough  : 
The  grave; 

And  the  barren  womb; 
The  earth  that  is  not  satisfied  with  water; 
And  the  fire  that  saith  not,  Enough. 


276  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

Wonders 

There  be  three  things  which  arc  too  wonderful  for  me, 
Yea,  four  which  I  know  not : 

The  way  of  an  eagle  in  the  air; 

The  way  of  a  serpent  upon  a  rock ; 

The  way  of  a  ship  in  the  midst  of  the  sea; 
And  the  way  of  a  man  with  a  maid. 


The  Golden  Mean 

Two  things  have  I  asked  of  thee; 
Deny  me  not  three ^  before  I  die: 
Remove  far  from  me  vanity  and  lies; 
Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches; 

Feed  me  with  the  food  that  is  needful  for  me : 
Lest  I  be  full,  and  deny  thee,  and  say,  Who  is  the  Lord? 
Or  lest  I  be  poor  and  steal, 
And  use  profanely  the  name  of  my  God. 

*  * 
* 

The  Love  of  the  Lord 

There  be  nine  things  that  I  have  thought  of, 

And  in  mine  heart  counted  happy; 

And  the  tenth  I  will  utter  with  my  tongue : 

A  man  that  hath  joy  of  his  children; 

A  man  that  liveth  and  looketh  upon  the  fall  of  his  enemies; 
Happy  is  he  that  dwelleth  with  a  wife  of  understanding; 
And  he  that  hath  not  slipped  with  his  tongue; 

And  he  that  hath  not  served  a  man  that  is  unworthy  of  him; 
Happy  is  he  that  hath  found  prudence; 
And  he  that  discourseth  in  the  ears  of  them  that  listen; 
How  great  is  he  that  hath  found  Wisdom! 

Yet  is  there  none  above  him  that  feareth  the  Lord. 

The  Love  -  of  the  Lord  passeth  all  things : 

He  that  holdeth  it,  to  whom  shall  he  be  likened? 

iThis  has  obviously  slipped  out  of  the  line  [A.  V.  and  R.  V.  of  Proverbs  xxx.  7 
read  'them'],  otherwise  the  sonnet  would  name  '  two  '  thinfjs  and  enumerate  '  three.' 

2  This  is  the  reading  of  A.  V.  to  Ecclus.  xxv.  11 :  the  R.  V.,  no  doubt  on  better 
textual  authority,  reads  '  fear,'  which  destroys  the  form  of  the  Sonnet.  The  emen- 
dation comes  under  the  principle  laid  down  above,  page  57,  note. 


FORMS    OF   WISDOM  LrFERATURE  211 

The  other  type  of  Sonnet  is  free  to  adopt  high  parallehsm  of 

any  kind.     A  simple  example  was  cited  above,  in  which  the  lines 

fell  into  two  blocks,  one  block  of  lines  parallel  with 

'  '  The  Free  Sonnet 

the  first,  the  other  of  lines  parallel  with  the  second 

line  of  the  couplet  text.     In  the  Sonnet  that  follows  the  lines 

seem  to  alternate  irregularly  :   but  upon  examination  it  will  appear 

that  all  on  the  left  deal  with  the  commandment,  and  those  on  the 

right  with  its  reward. 

The  Commandment  and  its  Reward 

My  son,  forget  not  my  law; 

But  let  thine  heart  keep  my  commandments: 

For  length  of  days,  and  years  of  life, 

And  peace,  shall  they  add  to  thee. 
Let  not  mercy  and  truth  forsake  thee; 
Bind  them  about  thy  neck  : 
Write  them  upon  the  table  of  thine  heart : 

So  shalt  thou  find  favour  and  good  understanding 

In  the  sight  of  God  and  man. 
Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine  heart, 
And  lean  not  upon  thine  own  understanding : 
In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  him. 

And  he  shall  direct  thy  paths. 
Be  not  wise  in  thine  own  eyes : 
Fear  the  Lord  and  depart  from  evil : 

It  shall  be  health  to  thy  navel. 

And  marrow  to  thy  bones. 
Honour  the  Lord  with  thy  substance. 
And  with  the  first  fruits  of  all  thine  increase: 

So  shall  thy  barns  be  filled  with  plenty, 

And  thy  fats  shall  overflow  with  new  wine. 

More  elaborate  in  structure  is  the  Sonnet  on  Intoxication.  It 
has  the  general  form  of  an  enigma  :  six  short  lines  contain  six 
questions,  the  common  answer  to  which  makes  a  single  couplet  of 
longer  lines.  Then  these  two  parts  are  doubled,  and  their  order 
reversed  :  the  couplet  is  expanded  into  a  quatrain,  after  which  the 
ideas  of  the  six  opening  lines  are  emphasised  in  six  couplets. 


27S  BIBLICAL  PIIILOSOPIIY  OR    IVISDOM 

On  Intoxication 

\Mio  hath  woe? 

Who  hath  sorrow? 

Who  hath  contentions? 

Who  hath  complaining? 

Who  hath  wounds  without  cause? 

Who  hath  redness  of  eyes? 
They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine; 
They  that  go  to  seek  out  mixed  wine. 

Look  not  thou  upon  the  wine 
When  it  is  red, 

When  it  giveth  its  colour  in  the  cup, 
When  it  goeth  down  smoothly: 

At  the  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent, 

And  stingeth  like  an  adder. 
Thine  eyes  shall  behold  strange  things. 

And  thine  heart  shall  utter  froward  things. 
Yea,  thou  shalt  be  as  he  that  lieth  down  in  the  midst  of  the  sea, 

Or  as  he  that  lieth  upon  the  top  of  a  mast. 
"They  have  stricken  me, 
And  I  was  not  hurt; 
They  have  beaten  me, 
And  I  felt  it  not; 
When  shall  I  awake? 

I  will  seek  it  yet  again." 

This  single  sonnet  has  illustrated  two  leading  devices  of  sonnet 
form  —  reversing  the  order  of  parts,  and  augmenting.  I  add 
two  more  poems,  illustrating  each  of  these  devices  respectively, 
and  further  interesting  from  their  thought  and  tone. 

On  the  Unsearchableness  of  God 

I  have  wearied  myself,  O  God, 

I  have  wearied  myself,  O  God, 

And  am  consumed  : 
For  I  am  more  brutish  than  any  man, 
And  have  not  the  understanding  of  a  man : 
And  I  have  not  learned  wisdom, 
Neither  have  I  the  knowledge  of  the  Holy  One. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITEKATUKE  279 

Who  hath  ascended  up  into  heaven,  and  descended? 
Who  hath  gathered  the  wind  in  his  lists? 
Who  hath  bound  the  waters  in  his  garment? 
Who  hath  established  all  the  ends  of  the  earth? 

What  is  his  name, 

And  what  is  his  son's  name, 

If  thou  knowest? 

If  we  may  intrude  upon  the  spiritual  beauty  of  this  poem  by  tech- 
nical analysis,  it  is  to  point  out  how  three  short  lines  grow  into 
four  long,  and  then,  by  reverse  process,  four  long  sink  into  three 
short.  In  the  example  that  follows  form  and  thought  are  clearly 
working  together.  x\  quatrain  of  apprehension  answered  by  a 
triplet  of  prayer  augments  into  a  double  quatrain  of  apprehension 
answered  by  a  double  triplet  of  prayer.  Such  structural  aug- 
menting means  spiritual  intensification. 

Watchfulness  of  Lips  and  Heart 

Who  shall  set  a  watch  over  my  mouth. 
And  a  seal  of  shrewdness  upon  my  lips. 
That  I  fall  not  from  it, 
And  that  my  tongue  destroy  me  not? 

O  Lord,  Father  and  Master  of  my  life, 
Abandon  me  not  to  their  counsel : 
Suffer  me  not  to  fall  by  them. 

Who  will  set  scourges  over  my  thought, 

And  a  discipline  of  wisdom  over  my  heart  ; 
That  they  spare  me  not  for  mine  ignorances. 

And  my  heart  pass  not  by  their  sins : 
That  my  ignorances  be  not  multiplied, 

And  my  sins  abound  not; 
And  I  shall  fall  before  mine  adversaries, 

And  mine  enemy  rejoice  over  me  ? 

O  Lord, 

Father  and  God  of  my  life. 
Give  me  not  a  proud  look. 

And  turn  away  concupiscence  from  me. 
Let  not  greediness  and  chambering  overtake  me. 

And  give  me  not  over  to  a  shameless  mind. 


280  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Before  passing  away  from  this  class  of  composition,  we  may 

Development  of      '^o^^  '^^'^'^^  ^^  ^^'"^  ^^'^^^  ""^  ^^''^  '^^^^  °f  *^'^^  Essay,  so 
Sonnets  out  of       the  development  of  the  Sonnet  out  of  the  Proverb 
^^^^^  ^  can  be  illustrated  in  all  its  parts.     One  example  is 

singularly  complete.  We  are  able  to  go  back  to  an  original  germ 
preserved  in  another  poem. 

For  the  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty, 
And  drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

The  thought  of  this  unit  proverb,  namely,  the  second  line  which 
connects  together  drowsiness  and  rags,  has  grown  into  an  epigram. 

Epigram  on  the  Sluggard 

"  Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  httle  slumber, 
A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep  " : 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber; 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

We  may  judge  that  this  epigram  belonged  to  the  extensive  float- 
ing literature  of  proverbs,  from  the  fact  of  its  appearing  in  two 
distinct  poems.  These  poems  are  sonnets,  belonging,  of  course, 
to  the  age  of  individual  poets  ;  the  two  work  from  distinct  points 
of  view  to  the  above  epigram  as  their  climax. 

Sonnet  on  the  Field  of  the  Slothful 

I  went  by  the  field  of  the  slothful, 

And  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understanding; 
And,  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns, 
The  face  thereof  was  covered  with  nettles, 
And  the  stone  wall  thereof  was  broken  down. 

Then  I  beheld,  and  considered  well : 

I  saw,  and  received  instruction. 

"  Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 

A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep" : 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber; 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  281 

Sonnet  on  the  Sluggard 

Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard; 

Consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise  : 
Which  having  no  chief, 
Overseer,  or  ruler, 
Provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer. 
And  gathereth  her  food  in  the  harvest. 

How  long  wilt  thou  sleep,  O  sluggard? 

When  wilt  thou  arise  out  of  thy  sleep? 
"  Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 
A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep": 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber, 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

It  remains  to  note,  in  conclusion,  that  Wisdom  literature,  on 
both  its  sides  of  verse  and  prose,  is  attracted  by  other  literary 
departments,  and  compound  forms  arise.  Prose  Philosophy  feels 
the  attraction  of  Rhetoric,  and  we  get  as  a  result  the  Rhetoric 
Encomium,  The  name  conveys  the  character  of 
the  composition ;  a  writer  sets  himself  formally  to  Encomi^m""^ 
the  task  of  praising  Wisdom,  or  the  works  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  style  has  rhetorical  flow  rather  than  gnomic  senten- 
tiousness.  Indeed,  these  compositions  are  usually  considered 
poems.  But  I  have  pointed  out  more  than  once,  in  connection 
with  the  general  discussion  of  the  subject,  that  parallelism  by  itself 
is  an  insufficient  criterion  of  verse  and  prose,  belonging  as  it  does 
to  Rhetoric  equally  with  Hebrew  verse.  And  when  the  matter  of 
these  encomia  is  considered,  it  seems  to  me  nearer  to  the  matter 
of  prose  essays  than  to  that  of  sonnets.  Even  as  regards  structure, 
the  parallelism  is  sometimes  broken  by  what  will  make  excellent 
prose,  but  feeble  verse. 

Good  things  are  created  from  the  beginning  for  the  good :  so  are 
evil  things  for  sinners.     The  chief  of  all  things  necessary    5;„pi„g 
for  the  life  of  man  are  water,  and  fire,  and  iron,  and  salt,    xxxix. 
and  flour  of  wheat,  and  honey,  and  milk,  the  blood  of  the    25 
grape,  and  oil,  and  clothing.     All  these  things  are  for  good  to  the 
godly;    so  to  the  sinners  they  shall  be  turned  into  evil. 


2S2  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

If  this  enumeration  of  necessary  things  be  placed  side  by  side 
with  a  not  dissimilar  enumeration  taken  from  a  h-ric  ode,  the 
rhythmic  gulf  which  separates  the  two  will  be  apparent. 


Deut.  xxxii.         And  he  made  him  to  suck  honey  out  of  the  rock, 
*3  And  oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock ; 

Butter  of  kine,  and  milk  of  sheep, 

With  fat  of  lambs. 

And  rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan,  and  goats. 

With  the  fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat ; 

And  of  the  blood  of  the  grape  thou  drankest  wine. 


In  any  case,  the  Rhetoric  Encomium  makes  one  more  point  at 
which  Hebrew  verse  and  prose  approach  one  another. 

On  the  other  hand,  Wisdom  is  attracted  by  Drama,  and  conveys 
its  thoughts  in  the  form  of  Dramatic  Monologues.     Wisdom  is 

personified  :  she  is  made  to  build  her  house,  to 
The  Dramatic        spread  her  table,  to  speak  in  warning  or  in\'itation. 

The  most  elaborate  poem  of  this  tj'pe  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  prepares  the  way  for  the  monologue  itself  by  a  \'i\-id 
picture  of  the  '  Strange  Woman,'  laying  her  snares,  and  speaking 
her  wUes,  till  the  simple  victim  follows,  like  an  ox  going  to  the 
slaughter,  to  the  house  that  is  the  way  to  the  Abyss.  Immediately, 
without  a  word  of  connection,  comes  the  contrast. 


Doth  not  Wisdom  cry, 

And  Understanding  put  forth  her  voice  ? 

In  the  top  of  high  places  by  the  way, 

Where  the  paths  meet,  she  standeth; 

Beside  the  gates,  at  the  entr>-  of  the  city. 

At  the  coming  in  at  the  doors,  she  crieth  aloud. 


Wisdom  tells  of  her  excellent  things  :  of  her  instruction  that  is 
worth  more  than  silver,  her  knowledge  and  subtlety  more  valuable 
than  rubies  and  gold. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  283 

Counsel  is  mine,  and  efiectual  working, 

I  am  understanding;   I  have  might. 

By  me  kings  reign  ; 

And  princes  decree  justice. 

By  me  princes  rule. 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the  earth. 

The  climax  comes  with  creative  wisdom.  The  scientific  statement 
of  the  thought  would  be  that  the  structure  of  the  universe  is  such 
as  to  suggest  design  in  its  Author :  but  here  the  design  itself  is 
personified,  and  claims  to  have  been  with  the  Creator  from  the  first. 

When  there  were  no  depths,  I  was  brought  forth; 

When  there  were  no  fountains  abounding  with  water. 

Before  the  mountains  were  settled. 

Before  the  hills  was  I  brought  forth : 

While  as  yet  he  had  not  made  the  earth,  nor  the  fields, 

Nor  the  beginning  of  the  dust  of  the  world. 

When  he  established  the  heavens,  I  was  there : 

When  he  set  a  circle  upon  the  face  of  the  deep : 

When  he  made  firm  the  skies  above  : 

When  the  fountains  of  the  deep  became  strong  : 

When  he  gave  to  the  sea  its  bound. 

That  the  waters  should  not  transgress  his  commandment: 

When  he  marked  out  the  foundations  of  the  earth : 

Then  I  was  by  him,  as  a  master  workman : 

And  I  was  daily  his  delight. 

Sporting  always  before  him; 

Sporting  in  his  habitable  earth. 

In  personifications  like  this  the  form  of  Drama  is  borrowed  to 
clothe  the  meditations  of  the  wise.  But  there  are  dramatic  mono- 
logues which  go  further  than  personification,  and  put  certain  phases 
of  philosophic  reflection  into  the  mouth  of  historical  or  imaginary 
personages.  These,  however,  will  be  best  dealt  with  in  the 
chapters  describing  the  Books  of  Wisdom  in  which  they  are  found. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  SACRED  BOOKS  OF  WISDOM 

The  various  literary  forms  in  which  the  philosophical  thought  of 
Scripture  may  be  cast  have  been  reviewed  :  it  remains  to  consider 
the  Books  of  Wisdom  as  they  stand. 

The  first  of  these  is  entitled  The  Prcn-erbs.  In  technical  form 
it  may  be  described  as  a  Miscellany  in  Five  Books  :  the  five-fold 
The  Proverbs-  a  •^i^'i^io^  of  this  work  (and  of  Ecclesiasticus)  being 
miscellany  in  as  well  marked  as  in  the  Book  of  Psalms.  The  first 
five  books  book  is  made  up  of  nine  chapters.     This  is  a  por- 

tion of  Scripture  dear  to  ever\-  reader  :  for  Uterar}'  charm  no  part 
of  the  Bible  is  more  impressive.  I  must,  however,  express  dissent 
from  the  received  Wew  that  the  nine  chapters  make  one  continuous 
poem.  The  view  seems  to  rest  upon  such  considerations  as  these  : 
the  uniqueness  in  character  of  this  section ;  the 
First  Book  ^^y,  jj^  which  it  serves  as  prologue  to  what  follows ; 

the  fact  of  its  being  cast  in  the  form  of  a  father's 
counsels  to  a  son  ;  while  some  have  claimed  to  trace  in  it  a  regu- 
lar progression  of  thought.  The  unique  character  of  these  chap- 
ters is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  preponderance  in  them  of  one 
t}'pe  of  poem  :  out  of  twenty-two  free  sonnets  and  dramatic  mono- 
logues eighteen  are  to  be  found  in  this  section  of  Proverbs,  and 
only  four  outside  it.*  Again  :  the  chapters  cannot  be  called  a  pro- 
logue in  the  sense  of  an  introduction  making  reference  to  the  rest 
of  the  work  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  quite  natural  for  the 

1  Throughout  the  chapter  comp>are  Proverbs,  etc.,  in  the  Literary  Index  (Ap- 
pendix I). 

284 


THE   SACKED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  285 

editor  of  the  collection  to  place  first  poems  treating  Wisdom  as  a 
whole,  and  after  these  the  proverbs  that  deal  with  more  particular 
themes.  As  to  the  formula  '  My  Son,'  it  may  be  remarked  that  in 
considerable  portions  of  the  nine  chapters  it  is  absent,^  portions 
apparently  containing  independent»poems,  one  of  which  is  ad- 
dressed to  a  sluggard ;  where  such  a  formula  does  occur  it  varies 
between  '  My  Son  '  and  '  My  Sons,'  which  suggests  its  general  char- 
acter. When  it  is  further  seen  that  elsewhere  the  formula  is  found, 
rarely  in  unit  proverbs,  but  commonly  in  the  longer  compositions  of 
this  kind,-  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  why  it  should 
appear  so  often  in  this  part  of  the  book  which  is  made  up  of  long 
poems.  In  any  case,  the  recurrence  of  the  expression  '  My  Son  * 
is  no  more  an  evidence  of  connectedness,  than  would  the  recur- 
rence from  a  modern  pulpit  Sunday  after  Sunday  of  the  expression 
'  My  Brethren  '  prove  that  the  preacher's  successive  sermons  made 
a  unity.  The  supposed  progression  of  thought  is  rejected  by  many 
of  those  who  accept  the  unity  of  the  chapters ;  it  can  be  traced 
only  by  supposing  passages  to  be  interpolations  that  do  not  fit  in 
with  it.  But  the  idea  must  be  pronounced  impossible,  if  for  no 
other  reason,  on  the  ground  of  repetitions  and  redundancies. 
That  the  theme  of  Wisdom  and  the  Strange  Woman,  after  being 
brought  to  a  magnificent  climax  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  chap- 
ters, should  be  treated  again  in  brief  studies  in  the  ninth  chapter, 
is  entirely  inconsistent  with  a  continuous  poem,  though  natural 
enough  in  that  which  is  a  collection  of  similar  compositions. 

This  first  section  of  Proverbs  then,  like  the  other  sections,  is 
miscellaneous  in  character.  It  is  a  series  of  poems  that  would 
be  fairly  described  by  the  title,  '  Sonnets  on  Wisdom.'  In  some  ^ 
the  name  does  not  occur,  but  Wisdom  is  set  off  by  kindred  or  by 
contrasting  ideas.     One  sonnet  exhibits  the  company  of  the  evil 

1  i.  20-33;  'V'-  6-II,  12-19;  i'^-  i-6r  7-9.  10-12,  13-18. 

2  In  unit  proverbs  I  have  only  observed  it  twice  {Prov.  xxvii.  11  and  Eccliis.  vii. 
3).  It  occurs  in  epigrams  (Prov.  xxiii.  15;  xxiv.  13)  and  often  in  the  essays  and 
proverb  clusters  of  Ecclus.  (iv.  i;  vi.  18;  x.  28;  xiv.  11;  eta.).  Compare  the  use 
of '  My  Children  '  {Ecclus.  xli.  14)  and  '  Young  Man  '  {Eccles.  xi.  9). 

8  Compare  the  titles  of  the  sonnets,  etc.,  in  the  Appendix. 


286  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

as  laying  snares  for  their  own  lives ;  another  contrasts  the  path 
of  the  wicked  with  the  path  of  the  righteous  shining  on  from 
dawn  to  perfect  day ;  others  denounce  the  vices  that  Wisdom 
would  hate.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  poems  Wisdom  is  cele- 
brated directly  :  appearing  as  «,  gracious  personality  speaking  her 
winning  invitations,  in  contrast  with  the  '  strange  woman '  that 
lures  fools  to  their  death ;  or  as  the  great  prize  in  view  the  sight 
of  which  is  to  make  even  chastening  endurable  ;  or  as  the  '  prin- 
cipal thing '  coming  down  from  venerable  tradition.  In  some 
places  this  Wisdom  narrows  to  the  prudence  that  takes  alarm  at 
the  idea  of  suretiship  for  another,  or  the  diligence  that  hates  the 
sluggard.  But  elsewhere  it  gradually  widens  its  scope,  from  the 
caution  checking  a  personal  impulse  to  sin,  till  it  gathers  into 
itself  all  subtlety  and  discretion,  the  knowledge  of  the  counsellor 
and  the  justice  of  the  great,  and  appears  at  last  as  the  universal 
principle  that  has  made  the  strength  and  beauty  of  the  whole 
universe,  playmate  of  the  Creator  from  the  earliest  birth  of  time. 

The  second  book  has  for  its  title  :  'The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,' 
and  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  sections.     Except  that  two  triplets  i 

have  somehow  crept  into  it,  this  whole  book  is  a 
Second  Book  ^       .  i  tvt  i        i  i 

x-xxii.  i6  mass  of  unit  proverbs.     No  attempt  has  been  made 

to  arrange  them  ;  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word 

the  second  book  is  a  miscellany.     The  third  book  is  a  Gnomic 

Epistle.     Its    introduction   makes  clear   that  it  is 

Third  Book  ,    ,.  .    .  ,  ,  ,•        •  r 

xxii.  17-xxiv         delivered  in  writing,  and  on  the  apphcation  of  a 

delegate  who  represents  others  beside  himself:  the 

suggestion  is  of  the  intercourse  that  prevailed  between  Wise  Men 

at  a  distance,  such  as  Solomon  and  Hiram  of  Tyre. 

Incline  thine  ear,  and  hear  the  words  of  the  wise,  and  apply  thine 

heart  unto  my  knowledge;    for   it  is  a  pleasant  thing  if  thou  keep 

them   within  thee,   if  they   be   established   together    upon    thy  lips. 

That  thy  trust  may  be  in  the  Lord,  I  have  made  them  known  to  thee 

this  day,  even  to  thee.    Have  not  I  written  unto  thee  excellent  things 

of  counsels  and  knowledge;    to  make  thee  know  the  certainty  of  the 

words  of  truth,  that  thou  mayest  carry  back  words  of  truth  to  them 

that  send  thee?  ,  , 

1  XIX.  7  and  23. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  287 

At  the  end  of  it  there  is  a  postscript  commencing,  "  These  also 
are  sayings  of  the  wise  "  —  an  addition,  presumably,  by  an  editor, 
not  by  the  writer  of  the  epistle.  The  epistle  and  postscript  are 
mainly  made  up  of  epigrams  ;  though  there  are  two  sonnets,  and 
a  few  unit  proverbs.^ 

The  next  book  is  described  by  its  title  as  '  Proverbs  of  Solo- 
mon'  copied  out  by  the  '  Men  of  Hezekiah.'     When  this  is  com- 
pared with  the  second  book  there  is  a  noticeable 
difference.     Unit  proverbs  still  preponderate,  but  xxv-xxix 
with  these  mingle  epigrams ;  and  the   occurrence 
of  a  few  proverb  clusters  shows  that  between  the  dates  of  the 
two  collections  the  idea  of  arrangement,  as  well  as  expansion,  has 
come  in.     One  item  in  this  fourth  book  should  be  noted  as  dis- 
tinct from  anything  else  preserved  in  Wisdom  literature  :  it  seems 
to  be  a  Folk  Song  of  Good  Husbandry. 

Be  thou  diligent  to  know  the  state  of  thy  flocks,  xxvii.  23-7 

And  look  well  to  thy  herds : 

For  riches  are  not  for  ever; 

And  doth  the  crown  endure  unto  all  generations? 
The  hay  is  carried, 
And  the  tender  grass  sheweth  itself, 
And  the  herbs  of  the  mountains  are  gathered  in. 

The  lambs  are  for  thy  clothing, 

And  the  goats  are  the  price  of  the  field : 

And  there  will  be  goat's  milk  enough  for  thy  food, 

For  the  food  of  thy  household; 

And  maintenance  for  thy  maidens. 

The  last  book  is  made  up  of  shorter  collections  :  the  sayings  of 
Agur,  chiefly  fixed  or   number  sonnets;  the  epi-   Fifth  Book 
grams  of  Lemuel's  mother ;  and  the  famous  poem   xxx-xxxi 
on  the  Virtuous  Woman,  which  in  the  original  is  an  acrostic. 

To  the  whole  collection  is  prefixed  what,  in  modern  phrase- 
ology, might  be  called  an  elaborate  title-page. 

1  Compare  throughout  the  chapter  the  analysis  of  the  books  in  the  Appendix. 


288  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOBHY  OR    WISDOM 

THE  PROVERBS  OF  SOLOMON 

The  Son  of  David,  King  of  Israel 

To  know  wisdom  and  instruction; 

To  discern  the  words  of  understanding; 

To  receive  instruction  in  wise  dealing. 

In  righteousness  and  judgement  and  equity  : 

To  give  subtilty  to  the  simple, 

To  the  young  man  knowledge  and  discretion  : 

That  the  wse  man  may  hear,  and  increase  in  learning; 

And  that  the  man  of  understanding  may  attain  unto  sound  counsels: 

To  understand  a  proverb,  and  a  figure; 

The  words  of  the  wise,  and  their  dark  sayings. 

This  title-page  is  not  meant  to  describe  the  whole  contents  of  the 
collection   as   proverbs    of  Solomon ;    else,  why  should  the  title 
'  Proverbs  of  Solomon '  be  repeated  at  the  head  of 
Titie-Page  particular  sections  ?    The  prominence  of  this  expres- 

sion in  the  general  title  may  be  explained  in  one 
of  two  ways.  The  longest  section  may  have  given  its  name  to  the 
whole  :  a  thing  quite  famiUar  to  us  in  modern  Hterature.  But 
when  we  observe  the  contents  of  the  sections  specifically  designated 
'  Proverbs  of  Solomon,'  and  see  the  preponderance  in  them  of  one 
kind  of  saying,  the  suggestion  must  occur  that  the  phrase  is  the 
description  of  a  type  :  and  this  Solomonian  Proverb  would  seem 
to  include  the  unit  proverb  and  the  brief  epigrams. 

If,  then,  we  survey  the  Book  of  Proverbs  as  a  whole,  we  find  it  a 
miscellany  comprising  various  literary  types,  from  the  germ  prov- 
The  Book  of  ^^^  ^°  ^'^^  elaborate  sonnet  or  dramatic  monologue  ; 

Proverbs  as  a  what  arrangement  there  is,  is  based  on  the  kind  of 
^  °  ^  composition,  or  has  reference  to  author  or  compiler. 

The  philosophic  attitude  reflected  in  the  book  is  that  of  discon- 
nected observations  ;  there  is  no  attempt  to  combine  obser\'ations 
into  a  system.  The  correlation  of  all  things,  which  is  the  instinc- 
tive aim  of  modern  philosophy,  has  not  at  this  period  come  to  be 
treated  with  analytic  reflection  ;  it  is  on  the  other  hand  passion- 
ately adored  under  the  name  of  '  Wisdom.' 


THE   SACKED   BOOKS    OF   WISDOM  289 

The  next  work  for  our  consideration  is   The  Wisdom  of  Jesus 
the  son  of  Sirach,  which  has  curiously  come  to  be  known  famiharly 
by  the  title,  Ecclesiasticus :  that  is,  a  book  to  be  Ecciesiasticus: 
read  in  churches,  as  distinguished  from  a  book  of  a  miscellany  in 
canonical  authority.     Like  Proverbs,  this  work  is  a 
miscellany,  and  all  forms  of  Wisdom  literature  are  represented  in 
it.     The  difference  of  the  two  might  fairly  be  described  by  saying 
that  they  represent,  in  general  impression,  the  poetic  side  of  Wis- 
dom and  its  rhetoric  side  respectively ;  what  sonnets  and  dramatic 
monologues  are  to  Proverbs,  that  essays  and  rhetoric  encomia  are 
to  Ecclesiasticus.    The  work  falls  naturally  into  five 

books  ;  the  dividing  points  being  made  by  the  emer-     ^^  ^^^^  o    e 
'  °  '  °  -'  several  books 

gence  of  the  author's  personality,  and  his  celebra- 
tion, not  of  particular  themes,  but  of  Wisdom  and  the  works  of  God 
as  a  whole.     The  first  book  starts  from  an  account  of  the  author 
by  his  grandson,  followed  by  a  sonnet  on  Wisdom.     At  the  open- 
ing of  the  second  book  the  author's  preface  is  interwoven 

•  •  xxiv.  I 

into  an  encomium   on  Wisdom.     "  Wisdom,"   cries  the 
author,  "  shall  praise  herself" 

I  came  forth  from  the  mouth  of  the  Most  High,  and  covered  the 
earth  as  a  mist.  I  dwelt  in  high  places,  and  my  throne  is  in  the 
pillar  of  the  cloud.  Alone  I  compassed  the  circuit  of  heaven,  and 
walked  in  the  depth  of  the  abyss.  In  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and  in 
all  the  earth,  and  in  every  people  and  nation,  I  got  a  possession. 
With  all  these  I  sought  rest;  and  in  whose  inheritance  shall  I  lodge? 
So  the  Creator  of  all  things  gave  me  a  commandment;  and  he  that 
created  me  made  my  tabernacle  to  rest,  and  said,  Let  thy  tabernacle 
be  in  Jacob,  and  thine  inheritance  in  Israel. 

Wisdom  dwells  upon  her  exaltation  and  beauty,  and  on  the  fulness 
of  her  riches ;  then  the  author  speaks  to  identify  these  riches 
with  the  law  of  the  Lord,  from  whom  came  the  abundance  of 
Wisdom. 

The  first  man  knew  her  not  perfectly;  and  in  like  manner  the  last 
hath  not  traced  her  out.  For  her  thoughts  are  filled  from  the  sea, 
and  her  counsels  from  the  great  deep.     And  I  came  out  as  a  stream 


290  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

from  a  river,  and  as  a  conduit  into  a  garden.  I  said,  I  will  water  my 
garden,  and  will  water  abundantly  my  garden  bed ;  and  lo,  my  stream 
became  a  river,  and  my  river  became  a  sea.  I  will  yet  bring  instruc- 
tion to  light  as  the  morning,  and  will  make  them  to  shine  forth 
afar  oft". 

In  this  quaint  and  beautiful  figure   does  the  author   express   to 

the  reader  how  his  materials  have  grown  upon  him,  and  he  must 

add  a  second  book  to  the  first.     The  third  book  is 

XXXlii.   16-18  111  1       •      r 

opened  only  by  a  brief  preface  m  which  the  author 

describes  himself  as  one  gleaning  after  grape  gatherers ;  but  in 

the  case  of  the  remaining  two  books  the  author  ap- 

xxxix.  12  and  .... 

xiii.  15  pears  at  the  commencement  mvitmg  to  the  praise 

of  God's  works,  and  so  introducing  what  are  rhet- 
oric encomia  closely  bordering  on  hymns. 

In  this  fifth  book  occurs  that  which  is  the  most  extended  of  all 
the  compositions  so  far  noted  in  this  department, —  the  Encomium 
Encomium  on  °"  Famous  Men.  In  the  prologue  the  author  pro- 
Famous  Men  poses  to  praise  those  who  have  manifested  the 
xiiv-1.24  Lord's  mighty  power,  whether  as  rulers,  or  coun- 

sellors, or  men  of  learning  ;  inventors  of  music  and  verse  ;  or  rich 
men  living  peaceably  in  their  habitations. 

There  be  of  them,  that  have  left  a  name  behind  them,  to  declare 
their  praises.  And  some  there  be  which  have  no  memorial;  who  are 
perished  as  though  they  had  not  been,  and  are  become  as  though 
they  had  not  been  born;  and  their  children  after  them.  But  these 
were  men  of  mercy  whose  righteous  deeds  have  not  been  forgotten. 
With  their  seed  shall  remain  continually  a  good  inheritance;  their 
children  are  within  the  covenants.  Their  seed  standeth  fast,  and 
their  children  for  their  sakes.  Their  seed  shall  remain  for  ever,  and 
their  glory  shall  not  be  blotted  out.  Their  bodies  were  buried  in 
peace,  and  their  name  liveth  to  all  generations;  peoples  will  declare 
their  wisdom,  and  the  congregation  telleth  out  their  praise. 

In  a  tone  of  dignified  panegyric  he  goes  through  the  roll  of  Israel's 
great  men :  Enoch,  Noah,  the  patriarchs  ;  Moses,  the  man  of 
mercy,  with  .Aaron  and  the  third  in  glory  the  zealous  Phinehas  ; 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS    OF    WISDOM  291 

Nathan,  David,  Solomon,  Josiah  of  fragrant  memory,  until  he  ends 
with  Simon  whom,  in  all  the  pomp  of  his  priestly  function,  he  de- 
scribes with  the  vividness  of  an  eye-witness. 

Immediately  after  the  close  of  this  Encomium  the  work  ends 
with  something  that  reads  like  the  colophon  of  a  medi-  coiophon 
aval  book,  made  out  of  a  number  sonnet  and  a  beatitude,  i.  25-9 

With  two  nations  is  my  soul  vexed, 
And  the  third  is  no  nation : 

They  that  sit  upon  the  mountain  of  Samaria, 

•And  the  Philistines, 
And  the  foolish  people  that  dwelleth  in  Sichem. 

I  have  written  in  this  book  the  instruction  of  understanding  and 
knowledge,  I  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  of  Jerusalem,  who  out  of  his  heart 
poured  forth  wisdom. 

Blessed  is  he  that  shall  be  exercised  in  these  things; 

And  he  that  layeth  them  up  in  his  heart  shall  become  wise. 
For  if  he  do  them,  he  shall  be  strong  to  all  things : 

For  the  light  of  the  Lord  is  his  guide. 

There  is  still   added  after  this  a  '  Prayer  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Si- 
rach,' with  a  confession  of  faith  in  Wisdom;  from  their  position 
they  may  be  assumed  to  be  either  the  insertion  of  the        ^ 
grandson,  or  other  editor,   or  else    the  preface  to  the 
whole  book  as  left  by  its.  author. 

It  is  instructive  to  compare  Ecclesiasiicus  and  Provej-bs  as  types 
of  Wisdom  literature.     If  the  comparison  be  made   proverbs  and 
of  individual  compositions  in  the  two  works,  those  of  Ecciesiasticus 
Ecclesiasiicus  will  be  found  to  show  a  marked  ad-   '^°™p^''® 
vance  as  re^^rds  the  combination  of  shorter  into   longer,  which 
implies  the  extension  of  more  limited  into  wider  observations  of 
life.     The  proverb  cluster,  so  slenderly  represented  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  has  a  considerable  place  in  the   later  work ;  and  a 
still  larger  space  in  it  is  occupied  by  the  essay,  which,  we  have 
seen,  carries  the  aggregation  of  unit  proverbs  to  a  higher  degree 


292  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

of  fusion.  But  when  we  look  at  Ecclcsiasticus  as  a  whole,  its  con- 
tents appear  as  miscellaneous  as  those  of  Proverbs ;  the  work 
clearly  appeals  to  a  discursive  taste,  unhampered  by  any  thought 
of  system  or  arrangement ;  and,  however  elaborate  the  essays  or 
sonnets  may  become,  these  have  not  been  thought  by  the  author 
inconsistent  with  considerable  spaces  left  for  entirely  disconnected 
proverbs.  This  is  the  more  striking  from  the  fact  that  the  later 
work  is  not,  like  Proverbs,  a  combination  of  different  collections  ; 
it  is  entirely  the  work  of  a  single  author,  who  has  spoken  in  his 
own  person  to  mark  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  the  five  books  : 
making  it  clear  that  the  miscellaneous  character  of  the  work  be- 
longs to  the  author's  conception  of  Philosophy,  and  is  not  the  re- 
sult of  chance  or  want  of  care.  We  have  thus  reached  a  phase  of 
thought  in  which  systematisation  begins  to  work  upon  the  more 
fragmentary  observations  of  life,  without  approaching  the  concep- 
tion of  life  and  the  universe  as  a  whole.  Wisdom  and  the  works 
of  God  in  general  are  still  celebrated  with  poetic  or  rhetoric  fer- 
vour. The  last  composition,  the  Praise  of  Famous  Men,  shows 
that  the  conception  of  Wisdom  has  now  enlarged  to  take  in  his- 
tory. But  this  history  is  touched  only  with  the  tone  of  panegyric  ; 
and  Ecclesiasticus  thus  contrasts  with  a  later  work  of  this  depart- 
ment, in  which  we  shall  see  history  subjected  to  philosophic 
reflection  and  analysis. 

What  Ecclesiasticus  is  to  the  Old  Testament,  that  the  Epistle  of 
St.  James  is  to  the  New.  We  have  already  seen  in  a  portion  of 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  a  precedent  for  a  Wisdom 
of°sf  Sr°  Epistle  ;  and  with  this  conception  fits  the  differ- 
ence of  tone  which  every  reader  perceives  between 
this  portion  of  the  New  Testament  and  all  the  rest.  The  Apostle, 
moreover,  shows  himself  a  deep  student  of  Ecclesiasticus,  the 
thoughts  of  which  he  frequently  echoes.^     Of  course,  the  matter  of 

1  For  the  Essay  on  the  "  Origin  of  the  Evil,"  etc.  {St.  James  i.  12-27),  compare 
Ecclus.  Essay  on  Free  Will  (xv.  11-20);  and  also  Eccltis.  \.x\  and  iv.  10.  — For 
tlie  Essay  on  the  "  Responsibility  of  Speech  "  {St.  James  iii.  1-12)  compare  Ecclus. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS    OF   WISDOM  293 

the  epistle  has  enlarged  to  take  in  Christian  thought,  and  '  My 
Son'  has  changed  into  'My  Brethren.'  But  the  form  is  that  of 
Proverbs  and  Ecclesiasticus  —  a  miscellany  :  the  epistle  will  not 
yield  a  connected  line  of  thought  such  as  is  traced  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Paul,  but  must  be  read  as  a  series  of  independent  essays. 
Two  of  these  essays  have  been  cited  in  the  last  chapter  —  that  on 
the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Man,  and  another  on  The 
Responsibility  of  Speech.  Others  are  On  Faith  and  Works ;  On 
Respect  of  Persons ;  On  the  Earthly  Wisdom  and  the  Wisdom 
from  above  ;  A  Discourse  on  Judgment.  And  here,  as  in  other 
Books  of  Wisdom,  we  find  interspersed  between  these  longer 
essays  maxims  and  paradoxes  entirely  disconnected. 

We  now  approach  Ecclesiastes :  most  fascinating  of  all  Wisdom 
literature  to  those  who  desire  only  to  read,  while  it  is  the  stumbling- 
block  of  all  who  have  the  responsibility  of  interpret- 
ing.     Yet    the   difficulties   and   obscurities   which  jtsform 
undoubtedly  attach  to  this  work  have  been  much 
aggravated  by  the   neglect   of  the  axiom   on    which  I    have    so 
frequently  insisted  :  that  it  is  vain  to  search  into  the  meaning  of  a 
work  until  its  outer  literary  form  has  been  determined.     Our  first 
duty  then  is  to  enquire  into  the  form  of  Ecclesiastes,  basing  our 
enquiry  upon  the  book  itself,  and  also  upon  what  may  be  expected 
from  the  analogy  of  other  Wisdom  literature. 

In  the  first  place,  Ecclesiastes,  like  the  other  Books  of  Wisdom  we 
have  surveyed,  contains  a  series  of  essays  :  the  attempt  to  trace  a 
continuous  argument  from  beginning  to  end  must  be  dismissed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  most  cursory  examination  shows  a  new 
purpose  in  the  thinkings  of  the  Preacher  such  as  is  sure  to  affect 
the  form  of  the  book.  We  find  in  Ecclesiastes,  what  was  so 
markedly  absent  from  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiasticus,  that  reflection 

Essay  on  Gossip  (xix.  5-17),  on  the  Tongue  (x.wiii.  12-26).  —  Other  parallels  are 
Ecclus.  i.  26  and  St.  James  i.  5;  Ecclus.  ii.  1-6  and  St.  yamcs  i.  12;  Ecclus.  ii.  i 
and  14  and  St.  yames  i.  2-4;  Ecclus.  iv.  1-6,  xxi.  5  with  St.  James  v.  4;  Ecclus. 
X.  22-24  '^"'i  St.  James  ii.  1-6.  —  Possibly  the  somewhat  obscure  paradox  in  St. 
James  i.  9  may  be  an  echo  of  Ecclus.  iii.  18-19. 


294  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

has  now  been  turned  upon  life  as  a  whole,  and  particular  obser- 
vations have  a  reference  to  the  general  problem  of  reading  the 
meaning  of  existence.  Accordingly,  the  individual  essays  in  this 
book  must  be  expected  to  unite  in  some  common  drift ;  their 
mutual  relation  can  best  be  expressed  by  borrowing  —  as  literature 
so  often  must  —  a  term  from  music,  and  Ecclesiasies  may  be 
described  as  a  suite  of  essays.  One  more  point  needs  to  be 
insisted  upon.  In  each  collection  of  Wisdom  literature  we  have 
found  that,  whatever  else  there  might  be,  there  was  always  a  place 
for  series  of  disconnected  proverbs  interspersed  amongst  more 
extended  compositions.  This  feature  is  not  wanting  to  the  work 
under  consideration  :  of  the  ten  sections  (to  include  prologue  and 
epilogue)  into  which  I  have  divided  the  whole,^  three  are  not 
essays,  but  strings  of  disconnected  sayings  and  paradoxes,  more 
or  less  tinged  with  the  tone  of  the  author,  but  outside  the  drift  of 
thought  in  the  essays.  The  recognition  of  such  gaps  in  the  unity 
is  clearly  of  importance  to  the  interpretation  of  the  whole  ;  yet  it 
is  no  more  than  we  are  bound  to  expect  from  the  analogy  of  other 
Wisdom  literature. 

We  find,  then,  Ecclesiasies  to  be  in  form  a  suite  of  independent 
essays,  regularly  disposed  between  a  formal  prologue  and  epilogue, 
concurring  to  present  some  enquiry  into  life  as  a  whole,  and 
separated  at  intervals  by  collections  of  the  isolated  sayings  which 
had  constituted  the  older  conception  of  Wisdom.  Our  business 
must  be  to  follow  the  thought  of  the  separate  essays,  and  then  put 
our  results  together  in  order  to  understand  the  Preacher's  general 
view  of  life  and  the  universe. 

The  Prologue  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  whole  in  its  reiteration, 

"  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  is  vanity."     Philosophy  has  turned  itself 

from  mere  observation  of  the  details  to  contemplation 

Prologue     Q^  ^j^g  whole,  and  in  this  contemplation  can  see  no  solid 

1.  2-11  '  ^ 

result ;  its  enquiry,  to  use  a  phrase  of  a  later  essay,  is  a 
striving  after  wind  —  continuous  pursuit  of  that  which  continu- 
ally eludes. 

1  Compare  the  Literary  Index  in  Appendix  I. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS    OF  WISDOM  295 

One  generation  goeth,  .and  another  generation  cometh ;  and  the 
earth  abideth  for  ever.  The  sun  also  ariseth,  and  the  sun  goeth 
down,  and  hasteth  to  his  place  where  he  ariseth.  The  wind  goeth 
toward  the  south,  and  turneth  about  unto  the  north;  it  turneth  about 
continually  in  its  course,  and  the  wind  returneth  again  to  its  circuits. 
All  the  rivers  run  into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea  is  not  full;  unto  the  place 
whither  the  rivers  go,  thither  they  go  again.  All  things  are  full  of 
weariness;  man  cannot  utter  it:  the  eye  is  not  satisfied  with  seeing, 
nor  the  ear  filled  with  hearing.  That  which  hath  been  is  that  which 
shall  be;  and  that  which  hath  been  done  is  that  which  shall  be  done  : 
and  there  is  no  new  thing  under  the  sun. 

The  writer's  imagination  has  been  overpowered  by  the  vast  "  wheel 
of  nature  "  :  the  first  gUmpse  from  the  outside  of  that  interde- 
pendence of  things  which  modern  science  has  tracked  up  to  the 
conservation  of  energy.  In  contemplation  of  this,  life  seems  not 
a  progress  but  a  treadmill,  and  the  human  world  is  drawn  within 
the  tyranny  of  Law.  The  impressiveness  of  this  prologue  appears 
the  greater  when  it  is  realised  that  the  '  All,'  which  is  thus  pro- 
nounced '  vanity,'  is  precisely  that  which  previous  books  would 
joyously  celebrate  under  the  name  of  'Wisdom.'  Philosophic 
reflection  has  been  turned  on  to  the  sum  of  things,  and  adoration 
has  changed  to  elegy. 

We  proceed  to  the  first  essay,  and  at  the  outset  are  met  by  an 
obstacle  :  the  unfortunate  misinterpretation  of  a  single  verse  —  a 
double  misinterpretation  —  has  had   the   effect   of 
throwing  a  false  colour  over  the  whole  work.     The  i.ia.ij 
essay  opens  with  the  words  :  "  I  the  Preacher  was 
king  over  Israel  in  Jerusalem  "  :  and  what  follows  identifies  the 
king  referred  to  with  King  Solomon.     Hence  readers  have  jumped 
to  the  conclusion  that  Solomon  was  the  author  of  Eccksiastes. 
The  mistake  is  not  unnatural  in  a  modern  reader,  whose  leading 
interest  in  a  literary  work  is  apt  to  be  the  author ;   „.  .  , 

iVLlSt^KC  cLS  TO 

but  a  student  of  Comparative  Literature  will  see  at  Solomon's  au- 
once    that   these    words    make    Solomon,  not   the   thorship  of  the 

book 

author,  but  the  hero  of  the  narrative  that  follows. 

Several  schools  of  ancient   philosophy  instinctively  attributed  to 


2%  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

the  first  founder  all  that  each  follower  produced.  In  this  way 
the  whole  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  given  to  the  world,  not  in  the 
form  of  abstract  arguments  by  Plato  himself,  but  in  highly  dra- 
tilatic  dialogues,  in  which  Socrates,  as  main  speaker,  is  represented 
in  discussion  with  other  prominent  men  of  the  age,  the  discussion 
abounding  in  touches  of  wit,  scenery,  and  action,  as  artistically 
disposed  as  in  the  scenes  of  Shakespeare.  No  reader  ever  sup- 
posed that  Socrates  said  what  Plato  represents  him  to  say ;  but 
Socrates  had  started  the  impulse  of  thought  which  produced  Plato, 
and  the  scholar  pays  reverence  to  his  master  by  making  him  the 
hero  of  his  dialogues.  Another  striking  instance  has  been  pointed 
out  by  a  recent  writer  on  this  book  :  -^  that  the  school  of  Pythag- 
oras considered  the  drowning  of  one  of  their  number  a  judg- 
ment upon  him  because  he  had  put  forward  his  discovery  in  his 
own  name,  instead  of  making  it  part  of  the  philosophy  of  Pythag- 
oras. But  there  is  no  need  to  go  so  far  for  illustrations  :  a  com- 
panion production  to  this  Eccksiastes  is  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
which,  at  a  date  little  removed  from  the  Christian  era,  makes 
King  Solomon  the  speaker  of  all  the  philosophic  stores  of  that 
late  age.  It  belongs  to  Hebrew  philosophy,  we  have  seen,  to 
clothe  itself  in  poetic  and  dramatic  form  :  to  put  into  the  mouth 
of  Solomon  reflections  a  later  writer  thinks  fitted  to  his  personality 
is  no  more  than  an  extension  of  the  dramatising  treatment  by 
which,  in  Proverbs,  Wisdom  was  personified  as  the  inviter  to  all 
good  things.  On  the  other  hand,  authorship  is  a  question  of 
dates ;  and,  apart  from  this  verse,  all  the  indications  of  language, 
style,  and  matter,  are  found  by  experts  to  indicate  a  date  for  the 
book  centuries  later  than  that  of  Solomon.  Dr.  Ginsburg  has 
pronounced  it  as  impossible  for  Solomon  to  be  the  author  of 
Ecclesiastes,  as  for  Chaucer  to  be  the  writer  of  Rasselas. 

The  old  interpretation  involves  a  double  mistake.  Not  only  is 
Solomon  the  hero  instead  of  the  author,  but  he  is  the  hero  for 
only  a  fraction  of  the  whole  book.  The  narrative  that  commences 
with  the  verse  under  discussion  extends  no  further  than  the  close 

1  Article  Ecclesiastes  in  Sir  William  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  297 

of  the  second  chapter.'  From  that  point  onward  there  is  not 
to  be  found  a  sentence  that  associates  itself  with  Solomon. 
And  in  the  prologue  and  epilogue,  where  we  naturally  look  for 
personal  touches,  there  is  no  trace  of  this  wise  king,  either  in 
direct  mention,  or  in  circumstances  into  which  his  personality  can 
be  fitted. 

The  connection  of  Solomon,  then,  with  the  book  as  a  whole 
must  be  abandoned  ;  and  with  it  must  be  given  up  the  idea  of 
finding  in  the  unwholesome  life  of  that  monarch  an  explanation 
for  the  tone  of  Ecclesiastes.  Solomon's  place  in  the  book  is 
limited  to  a  single  essay,  which  may  be  entitled  :  Solomon's  Great 
Experiment.  The  author  identifies  himself  for  the  moment 
with  this  famous  king,  as  the  one  individual  in  whom  wealth, 
wisdom,  and  power  met  in  their  highest  forms,  and  in  his  person 
the  Preacher  supposes  himself  to  go  through  an  experience  de- 
signed to  test  all  the  forms  of  positive  good  in  which  men 
believe.  First,  he  will  use  his  resources  to  accumulate 
all  kinds  of  pleasure,  including  such  pleasures  as  wise  men  call 
follies,  but  he  will  keep  all  the  time  his  reflective  powers  un- 
impaired for  the  purpose  of  testing  what  he  enjoys. 

I  made  me  great  works;  I  builded  me  houses;  I  planted  me 
vineyards;  I  made  me  gardens  and  parks,  and  I  planted  trees  in 
them  of  all  kinds  of  fruit:  I  made  me  pools  of  water,  to  water 
therefrom  the  forest  where  trees  were  reared  :  I  bought  men-servants 
and  maidens,  and  had  servants  born  in  my  house ;  also  I  had  great 
possessions  of  herds  and  flocks,  above  all  that  were  before  me  in 
Jerusalem :  I  gathered  me  also  silver  and  gold,  and  the  peculiar 
treasure  of  kings  and  of  the  provinces :  I  gat  me  men  singers  and 
women  singers,  and  the  delights  of  the  sons  of  men,  concubines  very 
many.  So  I  was  great,  and  increased  more  than  all  that  were  before 
me  in  Jerusalem  :  also  my  wisdom  remained  with  me.  And  whatso- 
ever mine  eyes  desired  I  kept  not  from  them :  I  withheld  not  my 
heart  from  any  joy,  for  my  heart  rejoiced  because  of  all  my  labour; 

1  Even  less  far  than  that  if  we  assume  the  marginal  readings  of  R.  V.  (to  ii.  5, 
and  the  first  of  those  to  ii.  12)  ;  it  would  then  extend  no  further  than  ii.  11.  This 
would  ascribe  to  Solomon  just  that  part  of  the  whole  experiment  which  none  but 
Solomon  could  have  fully  carried  out. 


29S  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

and  this  was  my  portion  from  all  my  labour.  Then  I  looked  on  all 
the  works  that  my  hands  had  wrought,  and  on  the  labour  that  I  had 
laboured  to  do  :  and,  behold,  all  was  vanity  and  a  striving  after  wind, 
and  there  was  no  profit  under  the  sun. 

From  pleasure  he  turns  to   experiment  in  the   field   of  wisdom 

itself  and  its  opposite.     He  finds  indeed  that  wisdom  excels  folly 

as  far  as  light  excels  darkness  :  but  he  finds  also  that  "  one 

event "  happeneth  to  both.     There  is  yet  a  third  region 

to  be  tried  —  labour,  or  as  we  should  call  it,  enterprise  :  not  the 

enjoyment  of  wealth,  but  its  production.     But  this  also  seems  to 

fail  in  the  end,  when  the  labourer  must  die  and  leave  his 

labour  to  another,  not  knowing  whether  this  other  will 

prove  a  wise  man  or  a  fool.     So  the  result  of  all  this  experimenting 

is  that  there  is  no  criterion  for  ranking  anything  as  higher  than 

mere  enjoyment.     Is,  then,  this  enjoyment  the  one  reality  that  has 

stood  the  test  of  his  long  enquiry?     Not  at  all :  for  the  thought  soon 

follows  that  this  enjoyment  is  not  a  thing  in  man's  power, 

ii.  24 

but  is  itself  the  gift  of  God.     The  great  experiment  has 

yielded  only  negative  results  :  "  vanity  and  a  striving  after  wind." 

The  second  essay  may  be  entitled  :  The  Philosophy  of  Times 

and  Seasons.     A   certain   theory   of  the   universe 

econ     ssay        seems  to  be  suggested,  as  something  to  satisfv  the 

111-iv.  8  o&  '  o  ^ 

craving  for  an  explanation  of  things,  for  which  the 
great  experiment  had  failed  to  provide.  The  theory  is  stated, 
examined,  and  rejected. 

To  everything  there  is  a  season,  and  a  time  to  every  purpose  under 
the  heaven  :  a  time  to  be  born,  and  a  time  to  die;  a  time  to  plant, 
and  a  time  to  pluck  up  that  which  is  planted;  a  time  to  kill,  and  a 
time  to  heal;  a  time  to  break  down,  and  a  time  to  build  up;  a  time 
to  weep,  and  a  time  to  laugh;  a  time  to  mourn,  and  a  time  to  dance; 
a  time  to  cast  away  stones,  and  a  time  to  gather  stones  together;  a 
time  to  embrace,  and  a  time  to  refrain  from  embracing;  a  time  to 
seek,  and  a  time  to  lose;  a  time  to  keep,  and  a  time  to  cast  away; 
a  time  to  rend,  and  a  time  to  sew;  a  time  to  keep  silence,  and  a  time 
to  speak;  a  time  to  love,  and  a  time  to  hate;  a  time  for  war,  and  a 
time  for  peace. 


THE   SACRED   BOOK'S   OF   WISDOM  299 

Hebrew  philosophy  affects  artistic,  and  especially  gnomic  forms, 
and  in  the  guise  of  this  tour  de  force  of  enumeration  is  clothed  a 
very  intelligible  philosophy  ;  —  indeed,  that  which  was  the  uncon- 
scious theory  underlying  the  old  Wisdom,  with  its  tendency  to 
observe  the  parts,  but  turn  no  reflection  upon  the  whole.  It  is  a 
sort  of  practical  eclecticism  ;  a  disposition  to  recognise  differences 
of  kind  in  good  things  without  comparing  them.  The  previous 
essay  has  sought  a  siimmuvi  bonum  :  this  suggests  the  idea,  not 
summutn  bonum,  but  mu/ia  bona.  Against  this  theory  the  Preacher 
seems  to  make  four  distinct  objections.  First :  it  is  true 
that  separate  things  have  an  interest  of  their  own.  But  it 
is  also  true  that  God  has  implanted  in  men's  hearts  a  conception 
of  the  universal  underlying  these  particulars  ;  so  that  it  is  no 
longer  possible  to  enjoy  these  without  thinking  of  their  bearing 
on  the  whole ;  while  to  discover  this  last  all  man's  powers  are 
insufficient. 

He  hath  made  everything  beautiful  in  its  time  :  also  he  hath  set  the 
world  in  their  heart,  yet  so  that  man  cannot  find  out  the  work  that 
God  hath  done  from  the  beginning  even  to  the  end. 

Again :    it  is  true    that   there  is   nothing   better  than   to   enjoy. 

But  it  is  also  true  that  this  enjoyment  is  the  gift  of  God, 

and  in  granting  it  God  will  act  upon  principles  as  fixed 

as  fate,  and  no  effort  will  change  him.     Yet  again  :  the  '  seasons  ' 

of  things  are  not  observed;   wickedness  is  seen  in  the 

iii    i6~22 

place  of  judgment.     A  flash  of  thought  suggests  to  the 
Preacher  that  hereafter  there  may  be  a  righting  of  these  wrongs. 
A  second  flash  rejects  the  idea  :  what  guarantee  of  an  hereafter 
has  man  more  than  the  beasts  ? 

I  said  in  mine  heart,  God  shall  judge  the  righteous  and  the  wicked : 
for  there  is  a  time  there  for  every  purpose  and  for  every  work.  I 
said  in  mine  heart,  It  is  because  of  the  sons  of  men,  that  God  may 
prove  them,  and  that  they  may  see  that  they  themselves  are  but  as 
beasts.  For  that  which  befalleth  the  sons  of  men  befalleth  beasts; 
even  one  thing  befalleth  them:   as  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other. 


30ir  BfBUCAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  IVISDOIf 

As  a  final  ol^ectioD  the  Pkeacher  thinks  of  die  tfain^  that  no 

season  can  make  beandfol:    the  opfxesskm  that  is  worse  than 

death;  the  skill  tliat  exists  at  the  cost  <^  bitter  com- 

petitkm;  the  iscdated  life  that  has  no  |deasaie  in  its 

own  achievements.    The  e^ay  ends,  like  the  last,  in  '  vanitf .' 

Then  l(dk>ws  one  of  the  sectioas  we  have  hem  led  to  expect, 
diat  are  occupied  with  isolated  {xoveilis  havii^  no  idatirai  to  the 
unity  of  the  idicde  book.  The  sajii^  are  misceDaneons,  witb 
no>hing  in  cmnmon  except  diat  die j  are  positive,  not  n^ative;,  in 
f<xm.     It  is  a  secticm  of  Maxims  of  Life. 

The  fourth  secti<m  is  an  Essxy  <m  the  Vanitj  of  D^ire.     It  is 
easy  Co  instance  possesion  without  exyoyment:   a  man  kning 
silver  yet  nevo-  satisfied  with  silver;  seeing  goods  in- 
crease, but  seoi^  ako   increased  those  who  consume 
them ;  <x  even  ricb^  kept  by  the  owner  oi  them  to  his  own  hurt. 
But  the  tsssy  is  mainfy  occn^ed  witb  two  cxMnpanim  [Mctures. 
One  is  that  of  a  man  to  whom  God  grants  riches  and  wealth, 
and  at  die  same  time  the  power  to  oyoy  them :  so  mndi  so  that 
he  may.give  little  thought  to  his  life  as  one  happy  day 

T.  ao 

follows  another,  joy  of  heart  comiiig  as  answer  to  his 
{Mayers  aknost  befixe  they  are  uttered.  Tbe  other  picture  k  of 
a  man  on  whom  God  has  bestowed  without  stint  die  same  gifts, 
but  has  denied  hun  die  power  to  eaqoy : 

I  sax,  diat  u  witimHy  bixth  b  lietter  tlnn  he:  far  it  oo^edi  ia 
tnnkj,  and  dcpaitelii  in  itarimfss  aod  tbe  Bane  thenaf  is  oo«^ered 
widi  daiknes;  moieoccr  it  hath  not  seen  the  sm  nor  kaovn  it; 
IhE  hath  rest  Eatfaer  than  the  olfaeii 

Tbe  sig^t  of  the  Cfcs  is  better  than  the  vain  wandering  of  desire. 
^  ,0.0     Why  should  man  enlaige  his  desiies? 

Whatsoever  he  be,  his  nuae  was  ghroi  him  \ob^  ago,  sdci  n  is 
knovB  that  he  E  llaa. 

The  force  of  these  w«ds  will  be  abundantly  evident  when  we 
reooQect  the  tendency  of  ancient  .thought  to  look  upon  the  Name 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS    OE   WISDOAf  301 

of  a  thing  as  its  formula  of  definition.  Human  activity  is  pre- 
sented as  energy  striving  against  inherent  limitation.  Man  is  Fate 
to  himself 

After  another  of  the  relief  sections,  occupied  with  miscellaneous 
Paradoxes  of  Life,  we  come  to  an  important  essay,  Fourth  Essay 
which  puts  the  thought  of  the  opening  section  from   ^"-  23-ii- 16 
a  somewhat  different  point  of  view. 

I  said,  I  will  be  wise;  but  it  was  far  from  me.  That  which  is  is 
far  off,  and  exceeding  deep;  who  can  find  it  out?  1  turned  about, 
and  my  heart  was  set  to  know  and  to  search  out,  and  to  seek  wisdom 
and  the  reason  of  things,  and  to  know  the  wickedness  of  fully,  and 
foolishness  which  is  madness. 

In  Other  words  :  Perhaps  the  problem  of  life  is  too  vast  to  be 
solved,  but  is  an  approach  to  the  solution  possible  ?  Accordingly, 
the  enquirer  sets  himself  to  take  what  steps  he  can  in  this  direction. 
Hence  the  essay  may  be  entitled  :  "  The  Search  for  Wisdom  with 
Notes  by  the  way."  The  section  is  a  long  one,  and  in  the  course 
of  it  the  formula,  "  I  find,"  or,  "All  this  have  I  seen,"  ushers  in 
some  particular  observation  presented  as  an  instalment  of  the  solu- 
tion of  life.  There  is  no  need  to  dwell  upon  the  details  ;  most  of 
his  notes  are  notes  of  disappointment.  But  beside  these  one 
stands  out  in  strong  contrast. 

Go  thy  way,  eat  thy  bread  with  joy,  and  drink  thy  wine  with  a 
merry  heart;  for  God  hath  already  accepted  thy  works.  Let  thy 
garments  be  always  white;  and  let  not  thy  head  lack 
ointment.  Live  joyfully  with  the  wife  whom  thou  lovest 
all  the  days  of  the  life  of  thy  vanity,  which  he  hath  given  thee  under 
the  sun,  all  the  days  of  thy  vanity :  for  that  is  thy  portion  in  life,  and 
in  thy  labour  wherein  thou  labourest  under  the  sun. 

There   is   another  miscellaneous  section,   and  then   we    reach 
the  two  final  sections.     These  consist  of  an  essay   pj^tji  Essay 
followed  by  a  sonnet.     The  essay  presents  Life  as  and  Sonnet 
a  Joy  shadowed  by  the   Judgment.     The  sonnet   *^"  ^'*"'  "^ 
is  one  of  the  most  familiar  and  beautiful  of  all  Biblical  poems,  with 
its  symbolic  picture  of  old  age. 


302  BIBLICAL   FIIILOSOPIIY   OR    WISDOM 

Rejoice,  O  young  man,  in  thy  youth;  and  let  thy  heart  cheer 
thee  in  the  days  of  thy  youth,  and  walk  in  the  ways  of  thine  heart, 
and  in  the  sight  of  thine  eyes :  but  know  thou,  that  for  all  these 
things  God  will  bring  thee  into  judgement. 

It  is  most  important  to  avoid  reading  into  this  Old  Testament 
Wisdom  associations  drawn  from  the  New  Testament.  *  The 
judgment '  is  one  of  the  dominant  ideas  of  Hebrew  hterature  :  but 
it  is  by  no  means  what  modern  Christianity  understands  by  that 
term.  That  evil  and  good  are  inherently  antagonistic,  that  evil  is 
doomed  to  fail  in  the  struggle  with  good,  —  this  is  the  thought 
underlying  the  word  'judgment'  in  Old  Testament  poetry:  but 
there  is  in  the  conception  no  note  of  time  and  place,  no  distinc- 
tion even  of  this  world  and  an  hereafter.  Thus  the  effect  of  the 
passage  quoted  is  to  recommend  happiness,  but  happiness  accom- 
panied with  a  sense  of  responsibihty.  The  very  shortness  of  life 
is  made  by  this  essay  a  reason  for  putting  sorrow  away,  and  reap- 
ing to  the  full  the  bliss  of  living.  But  with  this  joyous  youth  must 
be  united  the  remembrance  of  Him  who  has  created  it,  and  the 
familiar  sonnet  follows  to  paint  the  coming  of  the  evil  days,  the 
decrepitude  unfavourable  alike  to  the  realisation  of  happiness 
and  to  the  search  after  God. 

The  Epilogue  starts,  like  the  Prologue,  with  the  cry,  "  Vanity 
of  vanities,  all  is  vanity  !  "     It  goes  on  to  say  that  the  Preacher 

continued  to  pour  out  his  stores  of  Wisdom,  that  he  '  pon- 
Epi  ogue     (jgj-e^j  ^^^  sought  out '  and  '  set  in  order '  many  proverbs  : 

the  latter  term  would  just  describe  the  elaborated  essays 
of  the  book,  as  the  former  expression  would  fit  the  miscellaneous 
sections.  After  a  warning  against  multiplication  of  books,  a  con- 
clusion is  made  by  pronouncing  the  whole  duty  of  man  to  be  the 
fear  of  God  and  the  keeping  of  his  commandments,  in  view  of  the 
judgment  into  which  every  work  will  be  brought. 

The  separate  parts  have  been  surveyed  :  what  is  the  significance 
of  the  whole?  The  Prologue  cries,  "  All  is  vanity  "  ;  the  Epilogue, 
"  Fear  God  "  ;  the  Essays  have  the  function  of  linking  the  two 
ideas.     A  twofold  spirit,  negative  and  positive,  prevails  through 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS    OF   WISDOM  303 

the  book ;  it  is  a  work  of  destructive  criticism,  with  one  posi- 
tive thought  emerging  and  becoming  continually 
stronger.  The  supposed  experiment  of  Solomon  ^cciesiastes  as  a 
reduced  all  things  to  the  level  of  enjoyment :  but 
this  enjoyment,  it  was  added,  comes  from  God.  In  the  attack  on 
eclecticism,  the  thought  was  repeated  more  strongly  :  enjoyment 
depends,  not  on  the  man  who  is  to  enjoy,  but  on  God,  and  there- 
fore on  inexorable  law.  The  next  essay  elaborately  contrasted 
one  to  whom  God  had  given  wealth  and  the  power  to  enjoy  it, 
with  another  who  had  the  possession  without  the  enjoyment.  In 
the  description  of  the  search  after  Wisdom,  the  gloomy  failures 
were  interrupted  by  a  single  picture  of  bright  simple  happiness, 
with  the  important  addition  that  such  happiness  was  a  token  that 
God  had  accepted  the  man's  works.  And  the  final  essay  occupies 
its  whole  field  with  the  idea  of  joy  tempered  by  a  sense  of  respon- 
sibility. Devout  scepticism  as  a  background  for  natural  happi- 
ness :  this  seems  to  sum  up  the  whole  thought  of  the  book. 
Interpreters  who  have  seen  Ecclesiastcs  clouded  by  its  supposed 
connection  with  the  life  of  the  historic  Solomon  have  pronounced 
it  scepticism,  or  hedonism,  or  cynicism.  Cynicism  it  certainly 
is  not :  for  its  one  positive  conclusion  is  the  supremacy  of  happi- 
ness. If  it  be  hedonism,  it  is  hedonism  by  Divine  right.  The 
Preacher  cannot  mention  enjoyment  without  adding  that  it  is 
God's  gift ;  the  happiness  he  celebrates  must  be  '  natural,'  that  is, 
tempered  by  sense  of  responsibihty  and  the  thought  of  God's 
judgment ;  the  means  of  pleasure,  such  as  wealth  and  position, 
may  be  possessed  by  the  wicked,  but  the  power  to  enjoy  them  is 
God's  own  hall  mark  on  the  man  he  has  accepted.  Scepticism 
this  book  of  Ecdcsiastes  certainly  is,  but  it  is  scepticism  with 
constant  reference  to  God.  God  is  recognised  as  the  author  of 
all  things,  the  sole  judge  whose  authority  determines  right  and 
wrong.  Nay,  God  is  represented  as  himself  the  author  of  the 
intellectual  despair  that  is  the  essence  of  scepticism,  since  he  has 
placed  the  world  in  man's  heart,  yet  so  that  man  cannot  find  out 
the  work  that  God  doeth  from  the  beginning  even  unto  the  end. 


304  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

The  Bible,  in  the  universality  of  its  literary  field,  finds  a  place  for 

scepticism ;  but  it  presents  a  scepticism  that  is  not  impious  but 

devout,  not  gloomy  but  a  ground  for  sober  happiness  and  a  full  life. 

Yet  there  is  a  point  of  new  from  which  Ecclesiastes  may  be 

Attitude  of  the       described  as  pessimist :  at  all  events  in  compari- 

book  to  a  Future    son  with  another  work  of  Wisdom  literature.     The 

^^®  Preacher  sur\-eys  life   as    a   whole :  but  it   is  life 

bounded  by  this  world.     Once  indeed  the  thought  of  a  judgment 

hereafter  occurs  for  a  moment ;  but  it  is  dismissed 

with  a  despair  that  sees  man  as  only  one  of  the  beasts. 

That  which  befalleth  the  sons  of  men  befalleth  beasts;  even  one 
thing  befalleth  them:  as  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other;  yea,  they 
all  have  one  breath;  and  man  hath  no  pre-eminence  above  the 
beasts:  for  all  is  vanit>\  All  go  unto  one  place  ;  all  are  of  the  dust, 
and  all  turn  to  dust  again.  Who  knoweth  the  spirit  of  man  whether 
it  goeth  upward,  and  the  spirit  of  the  beast  whether  it  goeth  down- 
ward to  the  earth? 

This  attitude  to  the  future  recurs  again  and  again  :  even,-  nsta 
along  which  the  Preacher  looks  for  light  appears  bounded  by  death. 
Like  the  answer  to  a  challenge,  then,  comes  the  remaining  '  Book 
of  Wisdom,'  which  borrows  once  more  the  dramatic  form  of  the 
historic  Solomon,  and  in  his  name  puts  forward  the  startling  truths 
that  God  made  not  death,  that  righteousness  is  immortal ;  while  it 
proceeds,  with  wonderful  picturesqueness  of  imagination,  to  pre- 
sent the  scene  of  the  judgment  hereafter,  of  which  the  Preacher 
had  despaired.  But  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  is  so  important  in 
matter  and  so  unique  in  form  that  it  needs  a  chapter  to  itself. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

'the  wisdom  of  Solomon' 

The  JVisdom  of  Solomon  resembles  the  early  Books  of  Wisdom 
in  clothing  deep  reflection  with  artistic  and  even  dramatic  form. 
It  goes  far  beyond  these  in  the  demands  it  makes    ,  ^^^^^^^^  ^f 
upon  the  imagination.     The  dramatic  monologue,   Solomon':  its 
applied  to  the  idea  of  a  judgment  hereafter,  pre-    °^^ 
sents  an  elaborate  and  moving  picture  of  the  wicked  triumphant 
on  earth  and  their  terrible  awakening  beyond  the  grave.     Indeed, 
Wisdom  has  an  artistic  weapon  peculiarly  its  own,  which  may  be 
called  Analytic  Imagination.     With  reverent  curiosity  it  reads  into 
the  cautious  reticence  of  some  sacred  narrative  an  array  of  imagi- 
nary details.    Exodus  speaks  of  a  "  darkness  which  might  be  felt  "  : 
Wisdom   boldly  sketches  all  that  the  imprisoned  Egyptians  might 
be  conceived  to  feel  in  that  darkness,  and  the  result  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  creative  literature. 

The  form  of  the  book  is  distinguished  by  another  character- 
istic,—  a  product  of  different  influences.  The  Apocrypha  stands 
between  our  Old  and  New  Testaments.  When  the  writings  which 
make  the  Old  Testament  came  to  a  close,  Hebrew  literature  still 
continued  in  an  oral  form  :  the  vast  literature  of  commentary 
which,  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  maintained  itself  and  gathered  vol- 
ume, until,  in  the  Christian  era,  it  took  shape  in  the  Talmud.  It 
would  have  been  strange  if  that  wliich  made  so  large  a  part  of 
Jewish  religious  life  had  left  no  trace  in  the  written  literature  of 
the  times.  A  slight  trace  may  be  seen  in  what  we  have  called 
maxims,  the  brief  compositions  which  take  the  form  of  texts  with 

305 


306  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

comments.     But  in  the    Wisdom  of  Solomon  the  discourses  are 
entirely  in  this  form  of  text  and  comment.'     The 
Texts  wit  discourses   are   (so  to  speak)   dovetailed  together, 

the  final  thought  of  one  being  akin  to  the  text  of 
the  next.  And  the  whole  book  is  made  up  of  such  discourses  : 
the  strings  of  disconnected  proverbs  which  in  previous  collections 
separated  the  longer  compositions  have  now  disappeared. 

In  this  last  of  the  Books  of  Wisdom  there  is  a  curious  feature 
of  style,  which  may  be  just  mentioned  here,  while  its  fuller  treat- 
ment is  relegated  to  an  Appendix.^     This  is  the  use  of  Digression, 
not  as  an  accidental  device,  but  as  an  end  in  itself. 
Special  use  of        What  at  first  gives  the  impression  of  obscurity  is 

Digressions  °  .  .    ,. 

soon  recognised  as  an  elaborate  series  of  digres- 
sions, and  digressions  from  those  digressions,  carrying  the  argu- 
ment further  and  further  from  the  original  thought ;  in  one  case 
the  dropped  threads  are  regularly  gathered  up,  and  the  argument 
brought  back  to  its  starting-point.  When  this  peculiarity  is  com- 
bined with  characteristics  previously  mentioned,  it  will  be  easy  to 
understand  the  following  as  the  structural  form  of  the  Wisdom  of 
Solovion :  A  suite  of  five  Discourses  on  texts,  the  last  of  which 
has  a  sevenfold  illustration,  at  one  point  of  which  occurs  a  seven- 
fold digression. 

Passing  from  form  to  matter,  we  may  say  that  this  book  resembles 
Ecclesiastes  in  the  fact  that  it  turns  reflection  upon  the  sum  of 
Its  Matter-  en-  things,  and  not  merely  upon  details.  But  any  such 
larged  conception  resemblance  is  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  wide 
0     isdom  difference  of  Wisdom,  both  from  Ecclesiastes  and 

from  the  earlier  books,  in  its  conception  of  the  sum  of  things 
which  is  to  be  surveyed. 

1  The  sentences  which  make  the  texts  are  easily  distinguishable.  Whereas  the 
other  sentences  are  closely  locked  together  by  argumentative  particles,  the  text 
si-ntences  are,  in  the  first  two  discourses,  independent  and  hortatory  (i.  i,  i.  12)  ; 
the  text  of  the  third  (vi.  12)  is  an  independent  gnomic  sentence.  In  the  last  two 
sections  the  texts  are  the  final  sentences  of  the  preceding  discourses  (last  line 
of  ix.  18,  xi.  5),  which  are  gnomic,  and  unmistakably  make  new  departures  in  the 
argument. 

2  See  Appendix  IV. 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON'  307 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  earlier  philosophy 
of  the  Bible  the  examination  of  external  nature  has  no  place. 
The  mass  of  unit  proverbs,  and  the  essays  arising  out  of  these, 
turn  upon  topics  of  human  life.  If  there  is  mention  of  the  dili- 
gent ant,  of  the  creatures  little  and  wise,  of  the  stately  marchers, 
it  is  to  point  from  them  a  human  moral ;  even  the  Preacher 
describes  the  rain  clouds  pouring  their  fulness  on  the  earth,  or  the 
perpetual  drift  of  rivers  to  the  sea,  only  to  find  in  these  images  of 
fatalism.  The  exquisite  observation  which,  in  Job,  speaks  of  the 
dayspring  taking  hold  of  the  ends  of  the  earth  until  the  dull  land- 
scape has  changed  as  clay  under  the  seal,  is  the  observation  of  the 
poet ;  and  from  a  similar  source  comes  the  sympathy  with  the 
wild  ass  in  its  desert  freedom  and  the  war  horse  chafing  under 
restraint,  and  the  wealth  of  detail  which  builds  up  the  pictures  of 
behemoth  and  leviathan.  The  first  book  of  Proverbs  and  the 
prefatory  sections  of  Ecclesiastictis  deal  largely  with  external 
nature  :  but  only  as  the  works  of  the  Lord  which  are  to  be  mag- 
nified. Thus  the  son  of  Sirach  celebrates  the  clear  firmament, 
the  sun  bringing  tidings  as  he  goes,  and  the  rainbow  glory,  only  to 
assist  the  thought  that  the  Lord  made  all  these  things ;  he  enu- 
merates the  material  things  chiefly  necessary  for  man,  and  pro- 
claims that  these  are  for  good  to  the  godly,  but  for  sinners  they 
shall  be  turned  into  evil  \  he  makes  a  climax  by  the  thought  that 
this  Wisdom,  of  which  these  glories  are  a  part,  has 

Ecclus.  xxiv.  8 

been  commanded  to  find  a  tabernacle  in  Jacob  and 
an  inheritance  in  Israel.  It  is  only  in  the  last  of  the  Wisdom 
Books  that  we  find  the  analytic  examination  of  nature  for  its  own 
sake  which  makes  the  substance  of  modern  science ;  and  the  pas- 
sage which  sets  forth  knowledge  of  this  kind  ends  by  claiming  it 
as  part  of  the  universal  Wisdom. 

For  himself  gave  me  an  unerring  knowledge  of  the  things  that 
are,  to  know  the  constitution  of  the  world,  and    the   operation   of 
the  elements,  the  beginning  and  end  and  middle  of  times, 
the  alternations  of  the  solstices  and  the  changes  of  sea- 
sons, the  circuits  of  years  and  the  positions  of  stars;   the  natures  of 


308  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

living  creatures  and  the  ragings  of  wild  beasts,  the  violences  of  winds 
and  the  thoughts  of  men,  the  diversities  of  plants  and  the  virtues  of 
roots :  all  things  that  are  either  secret  or  manifest  I  learned,  for  she 
that  is  the  artificer  of  all  things  taught  me,  even  Wisdom. 

History,  no  less  than  nature,  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence  from 
the  early  Books  of  Wisdom.  In  the  whole  of  Proverbs  and  Eccle- 
siastes^  and  in  four  out  of  the  five  books  of  Ecclesiasticus,  there 
is  not  a  single  allusion  to  an  historic  event.  The  fifth  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  is  largely  occupied  with  history ;  but  here  the  intro- 
ductory words  — 

Let  us  now  praise  famous  men  — 

prepare  us  to  expect,  what  the  subsequent  chapters  confirm,  that 
the  writer  treats  history,  as  he  treats  nature,  for  purposes  of  rhetoric 
enconlium,  not  of  scientific  reflection.  On  the  other  hand,  more 
than  half  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solotnon  consists  in  analytic  examina- 
tion of  history ;  and  its  conception  of  '  Wisdom '  is  enlarged  to 
include  the  emergeiice  of  providential  design  from  beneath  the 
succession  of  events. 

But  there  is  a  still  more  important  widening  of  the  field  of  view 
in  the  last  of  the  Books  of  W^isdom.  The  early  books,  ignoring 
nature  and  history,  confined  their  reflection  to  human  life  :  but  the 
life  they  surveyed  was  a  life  bounded  by  the  grave.  In  Proverbs 
and  Ecclesiasticus  there  is  nowhere  a  suggestion  of  anything  but 
this.  In  the  case  of  Ecclesiastes  I  have  drawn  attention-  to  the 
passage  in  which  the  Preacher  for  a  single  moment  entertains  the 
thought  of  a  judgment  after  death,  only  to  fling  it  away  and 
plunge  into  a  pessimist  doubt  whether  human  life  can  have  any 
ending  different  from  that  of  the  brutes.  But  in  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  the  starting-point  and  foundation  of  the  whole  argument 
is  the  extension  of  life  beyond  the  grave ;  an  immortality  bound 
up  with  righteousness  and  the  redress  of  wrong  is  assumed  with 

1  I  have  argued  above  (page  297)  that  Solomon's  experiment  in  i.  2  must  be 
understood  as  an  imaginary  incident ;  and  similarly  iv.  13-16  and  ix.  13-16  are,  like 
all  the  context,  general  statements. 

2  See  above,  pages  299,  304. 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  309 

such  certainty  that  it  is  the  '  ungodly '  who  are  presented  as  ignor- 
ing it. 

This  fact   inevitably    raises    the    question :    Is  the    Wisdom  of 
Solomon  an  answer  to  Ecclesiastes  ?     In  parts  of  Rgj^tion  of  wis- 
Wisdom  particular  phrases  and  turns  of  expression   dom  to  Ecciesias- 
seem  to  echo  thoughts  of  the  earUer  book.     The    ®^ 
Preacher   has   cried   that  "  the  sons    of  men  are  a  chance,  and 
the  beasts  are  a  chance,  and  one  thing  befalleth 

lu.  19;  vui.  8 

them";    that  man  hath  no  "  power  over  the   day 

of  death,  and  there  is  no  discharge  in  that  war."     The  ungodly 

of  the  later  book  reflect  that  by  mere  chance  they 

were  born,  and   hereafter  they  will   be  as  though  "-''^ 

they  had  never  been,  and  none  was  ever  known  that  gave  release 

from  Hades.     In  Ecclesiastes : 

The  dead  know  not  anything,  neither  have  they  any  more      ix.  5,  6 
a  reward;   for  the  memory  of  them  is  forgotten.     As  well 
their  lovers  their  hatred  and  their  envy  is  now  perished; 
neither  have  they  any  more  a  portion  for  ever  in  anything 
that  is  done  under  the  sun. 

The  same  strain  is  heard  in  Wisdom : 

And  our  name  shall  be  forgotten  in  time,  and  no  man       ii.  4 
shall  remember  our  works;   and  our  life  shall  pass  away 
as  the  traces  of  a  cloud,  and  shall  be  scattered  as  is  a  mist. 

One  of  the  few  positive  thoughts  of  the  Preacher  is  that  Wisdom 
excelleth  folly  as  far  as  light  excelleth   darkness :    and 
the  later  book  finds  a  climax  for  its  panegyric  on  Wisdom 
in  the  reflection  — 


11. 13 


Being  compared  with  light  she  is  found  to  be  before  it;       vii.  29 
for   to   the   light    of  day  succeedeth    night,    but   against 
wisdom  evil  doth  not  prevail. 

Above  all,  the  pessimism  oi  Ecclesiastes  reflects  that ''  the  righteous, 
and  the  wise,  and  their  works,  are  in  the  hand  of  God  "  :      ix.  i 
that  they  know  not  what  fortune  he  will  bestow  upon  them  and 


310  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

are  powerless  to  influence  it.  The  phrase  seems  to  be  caught  up 
by  the  optimist  thinker  — ^ 

iii.  I  The  souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God,  and  no  torment 

shall  touch  them  — 

and  this  is  his  foundation  for  a  picture  of  goodness  triumphant. 
Such  paralleHsras  are  insufficient  to  prove  anything  as  to  the  inten- 
tion of  the  writer ;  but  they  certainly  ser\-e  as  an  enhancement 
to  the  literar}'  interest  of  the  reader. 

When  we  consider  the  matter  and  general  argument  of  Wisdom 
there  is  more  ground  for  considering  it  a  veiled  answer  to  Ecclesi- 
astes.  This  will  appear  as  I  proceed  to  review  the  several  dis- 
courses. I  may  here,  however,  premise,  that  the  suggestion  is  not 
of  any  such  antagonism  between  the  two  books  as  would  imply 
that  one  was  right  and  the  other  wrong.  The  exact  attitude  of 
Wisdom  to  Eccksiastes  seems  to  me  to  be  that  of  St.  Peter  to 
St.  Paul  when  the  former  says  :  « 

n  Peter         In  all  his  epistles  .  .  .  are  some  things  hard  to  be  understood,  which 
iii.  i6        the  ignorant  and  unstedfast  wrest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  scriptures, 
unto  their  own  destruction. 

No  argument  of  Eccksiastes  is  in  Wisdom  cited  and  attacked  ;  but 
the  second  discourse  undoubtedly  presents  the  ignorant  and  unsted- 
fast'  wresting '  the  Preacher's  theory  of  life  to  their  own  destruction. 

The  first  discourse  is  on  Singleness  of  Heart.  The  text  is  made 
by  the  opening  words  of  the  book. 

Love  righteousness,  ye  that  be  judges  of  the  earth. 
Think  ye  of  the  Lord  -with  a  good  mind. 
And  in  singleness  of  heart  seek  ye  him. 

The  comment  on  this  text  is  brief  and  simple.  But  its  simplicity 
becomes  charged  with  keen  interest  if  we  look  upon  the  discourse 

as  glancing  indirectly  at  the  opening  essay  of  Eccle- 
First  Discourse      siasics.     That  essay  imagined  a  great  experiment 

of  Solomon  :  how  he  would  lay  hold  on  folly,  his 
heart  yet  guiding  him  with  wisdom  ;  how  he  would  heap  together 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  311 

every  form  of  pleasure,  and  withhold  nodiing  that  his  eyes  should 
desire,  yet  at  the  same  time  his  wisdom  should  remain  with  him. 
The  present  discourse  seems  boldly  to  pronounce  such  an  experi- 
ment impossible. 

Wisdom  will  not  enter  into  a  soul  that  deviseth  evil,  nor  dwell  in  a 
body  that  is  held  in  pledge  by  sin.  For  a  holy  spirit  of  discipline 
will  flee  deceit,  and  will  start  away  from  thoughts  that  are  without 
understanding,  and  will  be  put  to  confusion  when  unrighteousness 
hath  come  in. 

And  this  thought  is  enforced  by  enlarging  upon  the  spirit  of  the 
Lord  filling  the  world,  while  an  ear  of  jealousy  listens  to  every 
secret  utterance. 

The  second  is  the  main  discourse  of  the  whole  series.     It  might 
well  have  for  its  title  :  Immortality  and  the  Covenant  with  Death. 
Here  is  the  point  at  which  the  opposition  between 
the  two  Books   of  Wisdom  is  most  acute.     The  second  Discourse 

1.  I2-V1.  II 

Preacher,  whichever  way  he  turned,  found   death 
as  an  inevitable  destiny  mocking  human  effort.     In  startling  con- 
tradiction to  this  the  very  text  of  the  present  discourse  assumes 
death  to  be  a  thing  of  human  origin. 

Court  not  death  in  the  error  of  your  life  ; 

Neither  draiv  upon  yourselves  destruction  by  the  luorks  of  your  hands. 

All  doubt  about  the  doctrine  is  removed  by  the  first  words  of 
comment :  "  God  made  not  death."  Ecclesiastes,  with  melancholy 
iteration,  had  insisted  on  joining  man  with  the  beasts  in  regard  to 
his  end.  But  the  present  discourse  declares  that  all  the  races  of 
creatures  in  the  world  are  healthsome  by  creation,  and  that  Hades 
has  no  royal  dominion  on  earth  :  "  for  righteousness  is  immortal." 
Whence,  then,  has  come  death  into  the  world  ?  By  invitation  of  the 
ungodly.  The  invitation  is  described  as  being  "  by  their  hands 
and  their  words."  The  ungodly  life  is  interpreted  as  a  covenant 
with  death.  The  discourse  proceeds  to  voice  this  ungodly  life  in  a 
monologue  which  starts  from  the  point  of  view  of  Ecclesiastes. 


312  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Short  and  sorrowful  is  our  life;  and  there  is  no  healing  when  a 
man  cometh  to  his  end,  and  none  was  ever  known  that  gave  release 
from  Hades;  because  by  mere  chance  were  we  born,  and  hereafter 
we  shall  be  as  though  we  had  never  been :  because  the  breath  in  our 
nostrils  is  smoke,'  and  reason  is  a  spark  kindled  by  the  beating  of 
our  heart,  which  being  extinguished  the  body  shall  be  turned  into 
ashes,  and  the  spirit  shall  be  dispersed  as  thin  air;  and  our  name 
shall  be  forgotten  in  time,  and  no  man  shall  remember  our  works; 
and  our  life  shall  pass  away  as  the  traces  of  a  cloud,  and  shall  be 
scattered  as  is  a  mist,  when  it  is  chased  by  the  beams  of  the  sun,  and 
overcome  by  the  heat  thereof.  For  our  allotted  time  is  the  passing  of 
a  shadow,  and  our  end  retreateth  not;  because  it  is  fast  sealed,  and 
none  turneth  it  back. 

Come  therefore  and  let  us  enjoy  the  good  things  that  are;  and 
let  us  use  the  creation  with  all  our  soul  as  youth's  possession.  Let 
us  fill  ourselves  with  costly  wine  and  perfumes;  and  let  no  flower 
6f  spring  pass  us  by :  let  us  crown  ourselves  with  rosebuds,  before 
they  be  withered :  let  none  of  us  go  without  his  share  in  our  proud 
revelry :  everywhere  let  us  leave  tokens  of  our  mirth :  because  this 
is  our  portion,  and  our  lot  is  this. 

So  far  the  train  of  reasoning  has  corresponded  with  the  theory  of 
Hfe  laid  down  in  Ecclesiastes.  But  now  comes  an  unexpected 
trend  of  -thought.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  Preacher's 
momentary  conception  of  a  judgment  beyond  the  grave,  and 
subsequent  lapse  into  hopelessness,  came  upon  him  when  he  con- 
templated wickedness  seated  in  the  place  of  judgment.  As  the 
present  monologue  continues,  we  find  this  wicked  oppression 
springing  naturally  out  of  the  Preacher's  own  conception  of  life. 

Let  us  oppress  the  righteous  poor;  let  us  not  spare  the  widow,  nor 
reverence  the  hairs  of  the  old  man  gray  for  length  of  years.  But  let 
our  strength  be  to  us  a  law  of  righteousness;  for  that  which  is  weak 
is  found  to  be  of  no  service.  But  let  us  lie  in  wait  for  the  righteous 
man,  because  he  is  of  disservice  to  us,  and  is  contrary  to  our  works, 
and  upbraideth  us  with  sins  against  the  law,  and  layeth  to  our 
charge  sins  against  our  discipline.  He  professeth  to  have  knowl- 
edge of  God,  and  nameth  himself  servant  of  the  Lord.  He  became 
to  us  a  reproof  of  our  thoughts.  He  is  grievous  to  us  even  to 
behold,  because  his   life   is  unlike  other  men's,  and   his  paths  are 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  313 

of  strange  fashion.  We  were  accounted  of  him  as  base  metal, 
and  he  abstaineth  from  our  ways  as  from  uncleannesses.  The 
latter  end  of  the  righteous  he  calleth  happy;  and  he  vaunteth  that 
God  is  his  father.  Let  us  see  if  his  words  be  true,  and  let  us  try 
what  shall  befall  in  the  ending  of  his  life.  For  if  the  righteous  man 
is  God's  son,  he  will  uphold  him,  and  he  will  deliver  him  out  of  the 
hand  of  his  adversaries.  With  outrage  and  torture  let  us  put  him  to 
the  test,  that  we  may  learn  his  gentleness,  and  may  prove  his  patience 
under  wrong.  Let  us  condemn  him  to  a  shameful  death;  for  he 
shall  be  visited  according  to  his  words. 

The  author  breaks  in  to  say  how  these  reasoners  are  bUnded  by 
wickedness  to  the  mysteries  of  God  ;  and  (as  already  pointed  out) 
he  catches  at  a  phrase  of  the  Preacher  to  turn  it  to  an  opposite  use. 

The  souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God,  and  no  tor- 
ment shall  touch  them.  In  the  eyes  of  the  foolish  they  seemed 
to  have  died;  and  their  departure  was  accounted  to  be  their  hurt, 
and  their  journeying  away  from  us  to  be  their  ruin :  but  they  are  in 
peace.  For  even  if  in  the  sight  of  men  they  be  punished,  their  hope 
is  full  of  immortality;  and  having  borne  a  little  chastening,  they  shall 
receive  great  good  .  .  .  and  in  the  time  of  their  visitation  they  shall 
shine  forth,  and  as  sparks  among  stubble  they  shall  run  to  and  fro. 
They  shall  judge  nations,  and  have  dominion  over  peoples;  and  the 
Lord  shall  reign  over  them  for  evermore. 

The  picture  of  the  ungodly  reasoners  is  to  be  completed  by  a 
companion  picture  of  the  same  reasoners  beyond  the  grave.  But 
first,  with  his  tendency  to  digression,  the  author  turns  aside  to 
glance  at  the  rival  hopes  to  this  his  hope  of  immortality.  The 
substitutes  for  our  modern  conception  of  immortality  in  the  minds 
of  Old  Testament  worthies  were  two  :  length  of  days  in  this  world, 
and  the  living  over  again  in  posterity.  The  author  of  Wisdom 
strikes  at  both  these  ideas.  The  multiplying  brood  of  the  ungodly 
is  profitless  :  better  is  childlessness  with  virtue.  As  for  length  of 
days  :  it  may  well  be  that  the  life  cut  short  is  the  life  crowned. 

For  honourable  old  age  is  not  that  which  standeth  in  length  of  time, 
nor  is  its  measure  given  by  number  of  years :  but  understanding  is 
gray  hairs  unto  men,  and  an  unspotted  life  is  ripe  old  age.  .  .  .     Being 


314  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

made  perfect  in  a  little  while  he  fulfilled  long  years;  for  his  soul  was 
pleasing  unto  the  Lord :  therefore  he  hastened  him  away  out  of  the 
midst  of  wickedness. 

And  now  the  dramatic  monologue  is  again  called  into  requisition 
to  paint  the  amazement  of  the  ungodly,  risen  from  a  dishonoured 
sojourn  among  the  dead,  to  behold  the  righteous  standing  in  great 
boldness  before  those  who  afflicted  him. 

This  was  he  whom  aforetime  we  had  in  derision,  and  made  a 
parable  of  reproach :  we  fools  accounted  his  life  madness,  and  his 
end  without  honour:  how  was  he  numbered  among  sons  of  God? 
and  how  is  his  lot  among  saints?  Verily  we  went  astray  from  the 
way  of  truth,  and  the  light  of  righteousness  shined  not  for  us,  and 
the  sun  rose  not  for  us.  We  took  our  fill  of  the  paths  of  lawlessness 
and  destruction,  and  we  journeyed  through  trackless  deserts,  but  the 
way  of  the  Lord  we  knew  not.  What  did  our  arrogancy  profit  us? 
And  what  good  have  riches  and  vaunting  brought  us?  Those  things 
all  passed  away  as  a  shadow,  and  as  a  message  that  runneth  by :  as 
a  ship  passing  through  the  billowj'  water,  whereof,  when  it  is  gone 
by,  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found,  neither  pathway  of  its  keel  in  the 
billows :  or  as  when  a  bird  flieth  through  the  air,  no  token  of  her 
passage  is  found,  but  the  light  wind,  lashed  with  the  stroke  of 
her  pinions,  and  rent  asunder  with  the  violent  rush  of  the  moving 
wings,  is  passed  through,  and  afterwards  no  sign  of  her  coming  is 
found  therein :  or  as  when  an  arrow  is  shot  at  a  mark,  the  air  dis- 
parted closeth  up  again  immediately,  so  that  men  know  not  where 
it  passed  through :  so  we  also,  as  soon  as  we  were  born,  ceased  to 
be;  and  of  virtue  we  had  no  sign  to  shew,  but  in  our  wickedness  we 
were  utterly  consumed. 

The  author  speaks  in  person  to  second  this  despair  :  the  hope  of 
the  ungodly  is  as  smoke  and  vanishing  foam,  while  the  righteous 
live  for  ever.  Then  the  discourse  reaches  a  peroration  in  a  picture 
of  the  universe  united  to  war  against  the  enemies  of  good. 

He  shall  take  his  jealousy  as  complete  armour,  and  shall  make  the 
whole  creation  his  weapons  for  vengeance  on  his  enemies :  he  shall 
put  on  righteousness  as  a  breastplate,  and  shall  array  himself  with 
judgement  unfeigned  as  with  a  helmet;  he  shall  take  holiness  as  an 
invincible  shield,  and  he  shall  sharpen  stern  wrath  for  a  sword.    And 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  315 

the  world  shall  go  forth  with  him  to  fight  against  his  insensate  foes. 
Shafts  of  lightning  shall  fly  with  true  aim,  and  from  the  clouds,  as 
from  a  well  drawn  bow,  shall  they  leap  to  the  mark.  And  as  from 
an  engine  of  war  shall  be  hurled  hailstones  full  of  wrath;  the  water 
of  the  sea  shall  be  angered  against  them,  and  rivers  shall  sternly  over- 
whelm them;  a  mighty  blast  shall  encounter  them,  and  as  a  tem- 
pest shall  it  winnow  them  away :  and  so  shall  lawlessness  make 
all  the  land  desolate,  and  their  evil  doing  shall  overturn  the  thrones 
of  princes. 

An  appeal  to  Kings,  as  those  whose  responsibility  is  greater 
than  that  of  lowly  men,  closes  the  second  discourse,  and  prepares 
fjr  the  text  of  the  third,  that  Wisdom  is  found  of 
her  seekers,  nay,  forestalleth  them  by  making  her-    Third  Discourse 

'  ^  '  -^  °  VI.  I2-12C 

self  first  known.  This  discourse  is  devoted  to  the 
personality  of  King  Solomon  :  a  personality  which,  as  in  Ecclesi- 
astes,  is  dropped  when  its  purpose  has  been  served.  Here  in  full 
distinctness  we  have  a  king  addressing  his  brother  kings  ;  and  a  very 
dififerent  character  is  painted  from  that  of  the  Preacher's  Solomon. 
The  wisest  of  men  tells  how  he  was  mortal,  like  all  others  ;  moulded, 
like  all  others,  in  the  womb ;  how  he  was  born,  and  drew  in  the 
common  air,  and  fell  upon  the  kindred  earth,  his  first  voice  a  wail : 
for  all  men  have  one  entrance  into  life,  and  a  like  departure.  For 
this  cause  he  had  to  pray  for  the  understanding  that  has  been 
given  to  him.  And  this  understanding  he  preferred  before  sceptres 
and  thrones,  and  riches,  and  health,  and  comeliness,  and  all  other 
good  things  :  but  with  this  Wisdom  came  to  him  all  other  good 
things,  for  she  is  the  mother  and  artificer  of  them  all.  Then  fol- 
lows the  famous  panegyric. 

For  there  is  in  her  a  spirit  quick  of  -understanding,  holy,  alone  in 
kind,  manifold,  subtil,  freely  moving,  clear  in  utterance,  unpolluted, 
distinct,  unharmed,  loving  what  is  good,  keen,  unhindered,  beneficent, 
loving  toward  man,  stedfast,  sure,  free  from  care,  all-powerful,  all- 
surveying,  and  penetrating  through  all  spirits  that  are  quick  of  under- 
standing, pure,  most  subtil :  for  wisdom  is  more  mobile  than  any 
motion;  yea,  she  pervadeth  and  penctrateth  all  things  by  reason  of 
her  pureness.     For  she  is  a  breath  of  the  power  of  God,  and  a  clear 


316  BIBUCAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOJt 


iBbii f  Hill- Jut  nfl^-  ir-'Tf-T:  Aereibre  caa  ■inirhiift  defiled 

fad  «"*"*»<rg-  iHto  hex.  For  sfe  e  «■  ifliilyni  firaia  evcdetiag 
Ijghl^ md  ■■  MspoHed  ■■im  off  ftg  woetMgcf  God, aad aa  fiMigf 
of  ks  SDodacsK.  ikad  dhcv1>ci*S  ^'■'•^■^  P°""'™l^^''l'^^'>i*S^: 
■■III.  II  ■■■iiiim,  is  kexad^  icaevtA  d  lOaig^r  aad  boH  geBeiaKiaa 
tDgeaentiaB  pasBiig iaio  holjr  aoais  ske  iMilrth  laeafeiaBfeof  God 
aad  f  uphete.  For  ■ad«s  doA  God  lore  ssre  kin  (kat  dwJfcJh 
via  wisdm.  For  ^he  is  faokcx  Ooa  Ae  sn,  aad  abore  aH  Oe  cob- 
Sbdlaikns  (of  &e  stass :  faeng  ooapaied  «i&  E^i;  ske  is  faaad  Ito  be 
befioR  k;  lortotbeE^  of  di^^  sagCTgdrth  a^^bat  agaastvis- 
doaa  eni  doA  aot  pR-raoi;  bat  ^e  vaAtA.  b/am.  amt  caA  of  Oe 
aradd  to  Ac  oOer  vil&  fid  stEeBg|A.aBd  OBderelb  al  Oiae^  gn- 


Sodi  Wisdom  Siolomoii  tdlk  hov  he  krred  from  lis  jramdi,  and 
am^^  to  take  her  lor  his  fande;  vidi  her  as  his  spouse  he  woold 
gain  glocj  amoDg  the  nmltiludes  and  hcnour  in  the  sight  of  the 
ddeis;  becaose  erf*  her  he  wooid  h»re  inunortafitf,  and  kanre 
fadnnd  an  eternal  memoiy;  he  will  gavem  people  and  be 
ooangeoos  in  war. 

'VKbea  I  aaa  cnaae  latat  aqr  kMse,  I  ahd  fiad  lesk  wiA  her;  &ir 

ciuaiiciaE'  «it&  ber  B[al&  w>  feijlliniaeiis,  aaJ  to  Eie  vith  ber  kafih  ■» 

poia^  bat  Hbdacss  zsaA  jm*- 

AccQsdin^  he  pleaded  with  tfie  Lotd,  diat  he  would  send  down 
lUsdom  oat  of  Idle  ho]^  heavens  and  fitom  die  throne  of  hs^arf: 
and  diDs  the  lusfeoric  pcaier  of  Gbeon  is  expanded 
'^  into  an  dalKHate  appeaL  The  ouoduding  pait  of 
dds  pgcxjrer  makes  the  tiansidon  to  the  important  discourses  idncfa 
aietoiilow. 

For  £  c]iunni|ic3:i&e  boaj  ««^eai  dtnra  Oe  so^,  aad  Ac  eaitbfy 
fiaseEeldkbenTaftaaiadaatBfidlof  cans,  ikad  baidk- do  aic 
dEviae  tihe  tOiag^  lOat  aic  oa  eaortb,  and  Oe  liBBgs  AaC  are  dbse  at 
haadare  fadwikblaboar;  bat  tike  Aiagslbat  are  iaAebcatreaswbo 

CTcr  jNCt  >i.»*xit  oat?  Aad  vbo  (eves'  jgjwwfd  Lauatle^ge  of  tt(f  ooaaBE^ 
^Dcept  Aoa  pnrest  wisdom  aad  siatcsit  Anr  boljr  spot  ftooa  oa  bi|^? 
Aad  it  v»  Aas  that  Oe  anfs  of  tbea  atbieb  are  cai  earth  woe 

omeeted,  aad  nea  wxc  laa^t  the  thiags.  ti&at  are  phasiag  aato 
ttee:  aad  Ibniwa^h  aisdoaa  aneie  their  saved. 


'THE   WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  317 

These  last  words  become  the  text  on  which  the  discourse  that 
is  to  follow  is  founded. 

Through  wisdom  loere  they  saved. 

This  fourth  discourse  occupies  a  'transitional  position  in  the  train 
of  thought  which  connects  the  last  thre.e  sections  of  the  book. 
Without  attempting  to  analyse  all  the  shades  of 
meaning  and  mystic  senses  that  attach  to  the  word  ^_^[_ 
'  wisdom,'  it  may  be  said  that  they  centre  around 
two  main  usages,  which  may  be  broadly  distinguished  as  subjective 
and  objective  :  the  wisdom  which  an  individual,  from  whatever 
source,  receives  into  himself,  and  by  which  he  guides  his  actions, 
and  again  the  wisdom  which  underlies  the  sum  of  things.  Of 
course  the  two  senses  are  closely  related  :  an  individual  is  wise  in 
personal  wisdom  when  he  brings  himself  into  conformity  with  the 
Divine  order  and  harmony.  The  final  discourse  will,  without 
using  the  word,-^  expound  wisdom  in  the  objective  sense  as  seen  in 
history.  The  third  discourse  has  ended  with  Solomon's  prayer  for 
personal  wisdom.  This  section  which  intervenes  deals  with  his- 
tory, but  mainly  with  its  prominent  individuals ;  and  its  use  of  the 
term  'wisdom'  in  an  interesting  manner  hovers  between  the  two 
senses  of  the  word.     In  the  opening  reference  to  Adam  — 

Wisdom  guarded  to  the  end  the  first  formed  father  of  the  world, 
that  was  created  alone,  and  delivered  him  out  of  his  own  transgres- 
sion, and  gave  him  strength  to  get  dominion  over  all  things  — 

the  first  clause  seems  to  speak  of  external  guidance,  the  rest  of 
self-discipline.  It  is  from  wisdom  in  the  latter  sense  that  Cain 
'  fell  away '  in  his  anger ;  but  it  must  be  wisdom  as  providential 
guidance  that  saved  the  world  from  the  flood,  guiding  the  right- 
eous man's  course  by  a  poor  piece  of  wood.  Providence  must  be 
the  wisdom  that  "  knew  the  righteous  man,"  Abraham  :  but  wis- 
dom in  the  other  sense  "  preserved  him  blameless  "  unto  God,  and 
kept  him  strong  when  his  heart  yearned  toward  his  child.     Exter- 

1  It  occurs  only  once  (xiv.  5)  in  a  subordinate  phrase. 


318  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

nal  wisdom  saved  Lot,  but  it  must  be  the  wisdom  within  that  Lot's 
wife  '  passed  by,'  and  became  a  monument  of  folly.  It  is  provi- 
dential wisdom  that  guided  the  fugitive  Jacob,  and  still  more 
clearly  the  same  wisdom  which  went  down  into  the  dungeon  with 
Joseph,  and  left  him  not  till  she  brought  him  the  sceptre  of  a  king- 
dom. When  Moses  is  reached,  the  two  senses  seem  again  to 
interlace  : 

Wisdom  delivered  a  holy  people  and  a  blameless  seed  from  a  nation 
of  oppressors.  She  entered  into  the  soul  of  a  servant  of  the  Lord, 
and  withstood  terrible  kings  in  wonders  and  signs. 

But  as  the  details  of  the  deliverance  are  reviewed  the  thought  is 
more  and  more  of  providential  guidance,  until  we  find  ourselves 
in  the  analysis  of  history  that  constitutes  the  final  discourse. 

The  fifth  and  last  section,  in  bulk  equal  to  one  half  the  book, 
branches  off  at  the  words  : 

For  .by  what  things  their  foes  were  punished, 
By  these  they  in  their  need  were  benefited. 

This  text  conveys  clearly  the  argument  of  the  whole  discourse ; 
though  (as  remarked  above)  at  one  part  of  it  there  occurs  a 
Fifth  Dis-  chain   of  digressions,  carrying  our   thoughts  from 

course  one  to  another  of  kindred  topics,  until  the  original 

argument  is  recovered  and  maintained  to  the  close.^ 
The  text  embodies  a  principle  of  providential  government,  and 
the  discourse  elaborately  supports  it  with  seven  illustrations  con- 
nected with  the  deliverance  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt. 

The  first  of  the  '  things '  illustrating  the  principle  is  thirst. 
For  the  Egyptians  the  inexhaustible  Nile  turned  to  blood  —  meet 
judgment  on  those  who  had  shed  the  blood  of  infants  :  while  for 
Israel  the  desert  rock  poured  out  abundant  streams,  Israel  having 
suffered  thirst  just  enough  to  understand  the  torment  of  their 
enemies,  and  see  the  difference  between  fatherly  admonition  and 
the  wrath  of  a  stern  king. 

1  See  Appendix  IV. 


XI.  21 -XU 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON'  319 

It  is  as  the  writer  is  commencing  a  second  illustration  that  the 
series  of  digressions  begins.     One  of  these  digressions  puts  the 
principle  of  providential  government  which  in  sec-   ^j^^  dj^ijj  ^j 
ular  literature  is  called  nemesis  :    by  what  things  a  Digressions 
man  sinneth  by  these  he  is  punished.     The  example   ^^'  '5-xvi.i 
that  suggests  it  is  the  plague  of  vermin  sent  upon  the  Egyptians, 
who  are  vermin  worshippers.     This  leads  to  a  further  argument 
on   the  forbearance  of  God  in    his  judgments  — 
making  the  judgment  assume  a  form  that  is  equiv- 
alent to  admonition,  and  convicting  little  by  little  so  as  to  give  a 
place  for  repentance  :    this  is  the  forbearance  of  strength,  and  of 
one  who  loves  everything  that  he  has  made.     Another  digression 
is  on  the  folly  of  idolatry.     There  are  degrees  in 
that  folly  :    least   blamable  are  those  who  mistake   ^"!'  ^''^'^'^-  " 

•'  and  XV 

the  beautiful  works  of  nature  for  God ;  next  mis- 
erable are  those  who  rest  their  hopes  in  dead  things  like  gold  or 
silver ;  but  the  furthest  gone  in  folly  are  the  Egyptians  in  their 
deifying  creatures  hateful  and  void  of  beauty.  The  scorn  of  the 
wise  man  closely  follows  the  scorn  of  the  prophet,  in  fancying  a 
woodcutter  cutting  down  a  tree  and  carefully  fashioning  the  best 
wood  into  useful  vessels,  then  warming  food  with  the  refuse,  and 
then  taking  the  very  refuse  that  is  good  for  nothing  and  carving  it 
in  an  idle  hour  into  a  god. 

For  health  he  calleth  upon  that  which  is  weak,  and  for  life  he 
beseecheth  that  which  is  dead,  and  for  aid  he  supplicateth  that 
which  hath  least  experience,  and  for  a  good  journey  that  which  can- 
not so  much  as  move  a  step,  and  for  gaining  and  getting  and  good 
success  of  his  hands  he  asketh  ability  of  that  which  with  its  hands 
is  most  unable.  Again,  one  preparing  to  sail,  and  about  to  journey 
over  raging  waves,  calleth  upon  a  piece  of  wood  more  rotten  than 
the  vessel  that  carrieth  him. 

The  folly  of  idolatry  leads  naturally  to  the  question  of  its  origin. 
The  writer  insists  that  idolatry  is  a  corruption,  and  not 

Xiv     12—^1 

one  of  the  things  that  have  been  from  the  beginning.     It 

may  have  begun  in  the  image  of  a  lost  child,  or  an  absent  king, 


320  BIBLICAL   rillLOSOrilY   OR    WISDOM 

coming  in  time  to  be  honoured  with  rites  and  worship,  until  stocks 
and  stones  have  become  invested  with  the  incommunicable  Name. 
With  such  corruption  of  worship  has  crept  in  corruption  of 
morals  —  frantic  revels,  tumult,  perjury,  defiling  of  souls,  confu- 
sion of  sex,  adultery,  and  wantonness  :  they  live  in  a  great  war  of 
ignorance,  and  that  multitude  of  evils  they  call  peace. 

The  digressions  have  occupied  half  of  the  whole  discourse  ;  the 
original  ai^gument  is  resumed  with  a  second  illustration  of  things 
which  were  judgments  on  the  wicked  turning  to  mercies 
on  God's  people.  This  is  connected  with  appetite :  the 
plague  of  vermin  caused  the  Egyptians  to  loathe  their  necessary 
food,  but  to  the  Israelites  were  sent  quails  of  dainty  flavour  when 
their  appetite  had  become  keen  in  the  desert.  A  third  illustration 
is  founded  on  noxious  bites  :  the  bites  of  locusts  and  flies  destroyed 
without  healing  the  men  of  Egypt ;  whereas  the  rage  of  crooked 
serpents  did  but  admonish  God's  people  to  heed  his  oracles,  and 
then  salvation  was  found  for  them,  not  indeed  from  that  which 
they  gazed  upon,  but  from  the  Healer  of  all,  who  has  authority 
over  life  and  death.  Once  more,  there  is  a  contrast  between  the 
rain  of  hail  and  showers  inexorable  mingling  with  fire  which 
destroyed  the  fruits  of  Egypt,  and  the  rain  of  angels'  bread  from 
heaven  on  God's  people  in  the  wilderness.  The  contrast  is  worked 
out  with  minute  subtlety.  The  elements  strained  their  force 
against  the  unrighteous,  the  fire  of  destruction  burning  in  the 
rain  and  flashing  in  the  hail;  while  the  same  fire  slackened  in 
behalf  of  the  Israelites,  and,  like  the  fire  of  a  domestic  hearth, 
tempered  the  food  to  every  taste.  Yet  the  manna  which  the 
fire  had  thus  not  marred  melted  in  the  first  faint  sunbeam,  teach- 
ing men  to  rise  early  to  give  thanks. 

The  fifth  example  gives  great  scope  for  the  feature  of  style 
which  I  have  called  analytic  imagination.  It  is  the  plague  of 
darkness. 

When  lawless  men  had  supposed  that  they  held  a  holy  nation  in 
their  power,  they  themselves,  prisoners- of  darkness,  and  bound  in 
the  fetters  of  a  long  night,  close  kept  beneath  their  roofs,  lay  exiled 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  321 

from  the  eternal  providence.  For  while  they  thought  that  they  were 
unseen  in  their  secret  sins,  they  were  sundered  one  from  another  by 
a  dark  curtain  of  forgetfulness,  stricken  with  terrible  awe,  and  sore 
troubled  by  spectral  forms.  For  neither  did  the  dark  recesses  that 
held  them  guard  them  from  fears,  but  sounds  rushing  down  rang 
around  them,  and  phantoms  appeared,  cheerless  with  unsmiling 
faces.  And  no  force  of  fire  prevailed  to  give  them  light,  neither  were 
the  brightest  flames  of  the  stars  strong  enough  to  illumine  that 
gloomy  night :  but  only  there  appeared  to  them  the  glimmering  of  a 
fire  self-kindled,  full  of  fear;  and  in  terror  they  deemed  the  things 
which  they  saw  to  be  worse  than  that  sight,  on  which  they  could  not 
gaze.  And  they  lay  helpless,  made  the  sport  of  magic  art,  and  a 
shameful  rebuke  of  their  vaunts  of  understanding :  for  they  that 
promised  to  drive  away  terrors  and  troublings  from  a  sick  soul,  these 
were  themselves  sick  with  a  ludicrous  fearfulness :  for  even  if  no 
troublous  thing  affrighted  them,  yet,  scared  with  the  creepings  of 
vermin  and  hissings  of  serpents,  they  perished  for  very  trem- 
bling, refusing  even  to  look  on  the  air,  which  could  on  no  side  be 
escaped.  .  .  .  All  through  the  night  which  was  powerless  indeed, 
and  which  came  upon  them  out  of  the  recesses  of  powerless  Hades, 
all  sleeping  the  same  sleep,  now  were  haunted  with  monstrous  appa-  ■ 
ritions,  and  now  were  paralysed  by  their  souls'  surrendering;  for 
fear  sudden  and  unlooked  for  came  upon  them.  So  then  every  man, 
whosoever  it  might  be,  sinking  down  in  his  place,  was  kept  in  ward 
shut  up  in  that  prison  which  was  barred  not  with  iron  :  for  whether 
he  were  a  husbandman,  or  a  shepherd,  or  a  labourer  whose  toils 
were  in  the  wilderness,  he  was  overtaken,  and  endured  that  inevitable 
necessity,  for  with  one  chain  of  darkness  were  they  all  bound. 
Whether  there  were  a  whistling  wind,  or  a  melodious  noise  of  birds 
among  the  spreading  branches,  or  a  measured  fall  of  water  running 
violently,  or  a  harsh  crashing  of  rocks  hurled  down,  or  the  swift 
course  of  animals  bounding  along  unseen,  or  the  voice  of  wild  beasts 
harshly  roaring,  or  an  echo  rebounding  from  the  hollows  of  the 
mountains,  all  these  things  paralysed  them  with  terror.  For  the 
whole  world  beside  was  enlightened  with  clear  light,  and  was  occu- 
pied with  unhindered  works;  while  over  them  alone  was  spread  a 
heavy  night,  an  image  of  the  darkness  that  should  afterward  receive 
them ;   but  yet  heavier  than  darkness  were  they  unto  themselves. 

With    such    supernatural    darkness    is   contrasted  the  great  light 
enjoyed  all  the  while  by  the  holy  ones ;  and  further,  the  burning 


322  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

pillar  of  fire  sent  as  convoy  of  their  unknown  journey,  and  kindly 
sun  for  their  proud  exile. 

The  sixth  illustration  reverses  the  order  of  the  contrast.  First 
is  mentioned  the  night  of  deliverance  to  the  chosen  people,  when 
sacrifice  was  being  offered  in  secret,  and  with  one  consent  they 
took  upon  themselves  the  covenant  of  Divine  law.  The  fathers 
were  already  leading  the  sacred  songs  of  praise  when  there  sounded 
back  in  discord  the  cry  of  the  stricken  enemy. 

For  while  peaceful  silence  enwrapped  all  things,  and  night  in  her 
own  swiftness  was  in  mid  course,  thine  all-powerful  word  leaped 
from  heaven  out  of  the  royal  throne,  a  stern  warrior,  into  the  midst 
of  the  doomed  land,  bearing  as  a  sharp  sword  thine  unfeigned  com- 
mandment; and  standing  it  filled  all  things  with  death;  and  while 
it  touched  the  heaven  it  trod  upon  the  earth. 

And  a  picture  follows  of  the  d^ad  thrown  here  and  there  in  the 
tossings  of  troubled  dreams  which  showed  to  each  his  doom  ere 
the  death  fell  on  him. 

Finally,  death  itself  is  amongst  the  things  which  are  judgments 
alike  and  benefits.  It  befell  the  righteous  to  make  trial  of  death, 
but  only  as  a  brief  calamity ;  for  the  blameless  Phinehas,  bringing 
the  weapons  of  his  ministry,  confronted  the  advancing  wrath,  and 
cut  off  the  way  to  the  living.  But  upon  the  ungodly  came  wrath 
without  mercy,  who  by  a  counsel  of  folly  pursued  the  fugitives, 
and  themselves  met  with  strange  death,  creation  fashioning  itself 
anew,  and  land  rising  out  of  the  sea  for  the  salvation  of  the  fugi- 
tives. In  the  deliverance  Israel  thus  celebrated,  and  the  plagues 
of  Egypt  fresh  in  their  memory,  and  the  gifts  of  ambrosial  food 
they  were  soon  to  receive,  might  they  see  all  the  elements,  inter- 
changing like  the  notes  of  a  psaltery,  conspire  to  magnify  the 
people  of  God. 

So  ends  the  last  of  the  Scriptural  Books  of  Wisdom.  Through- 
out its  whole  course  it  has  returned  to  the  tone  of  serene  contem- 
plation, broken  only  by  adoration,  which  had  distinguished  all 
Wisdom  literature  except  Ecclcsiastcs.     The  middle  discourse  of 


'THE    WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON'  323 

the  series  has  vindicated  Solomon  from  the  morbid  experiment 
imagined  for  him  by  the  Preacher,  and  portrayed  in  his  personahty 
individual  wisdom  in  its  most  kingly  form.  The  earlier  discourses 
have  set  over  against  the  pessimist  conception  of  a  life  bounded 
by  death  the  optimism  that  is  made  by  extending  the  vision  into 
a  future  beyond  the  grave  ;  while,  in  place  of  the  Preacher's  con- 
cluding strain  of  clinging  to  happiness,  the  opening  note  of  the 
present  book  is,  Love  righteousness.  And  as  these  discourses 
have  dealt  with  the  future,  so  the  concluding  discourses  extend 
the  field  of  Wisdom  to  include  the  past,  and  the  history  of  God's 
people  has  been  presented  as  an  ordered  scheme  of  providence. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Philosophy  of  the  Bible  takes  its  rise 

from  a  floating  literature  of  proverbs.     The  form  of  these  germ 

proverbs  is  fixed  to  that  of  a  single  couplet  ;  accordingly 
,  ,.,  ■  .^,  Review 

the  couplet  is   the  meetmg  pomt   of  verse  and  prose. 

Proverb  literature  develops  on  the  one  side  into  the  poetic  forms 
of  the  epigram  and  the  sonnet,  on  the  other  side  it  travels  prose- 
wards  in  maxims  and  essays  ;  but  in  either  case  Biblical  Phi- 
losophy always  seeks  artistic  form,  and  it  is  just  where  the  thought 
is  most  elaborate  that  the  most  extended  dramatic  monologues 
are  found,  or  the  most  brilliant  rhetorical  encomia  and  pictures. 
In  matter  and  spirit  this  Biblical  Philosophy  is  '  Wisdom  ' :  reflec- 
tion associates  itself  with  practical  life.  In  the  earlier  works 
reflection  has  been  directed  upon  life  in  its  separate  parts,  and 
miscellanies  of  practical  wisdom  are  the  result :  the  totality  of 
things  is  not  a  subject  for  theorising  upon,  but  is  approached  with 
awe,  and  worshipped  as  a  personified  Wisdom.  With  Ecclesiastes 
we  reach  the  point  at  which  analysis  has  turned  itself  upon  the 
sum  of  .things,  and  there  ensues  a  strange  divorce  between  theory 
and  practice  :  while  the  old  miscellaneous  maxims  still  appear,  we 
now  hear  of  a  whole  duty  of  man,  and  this  is  presented  as  a  rev- 
erent happiness ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  theory  of  Ufe  has 
started  only  to  break  down  in  negations,  and  in  despair  of  all  but 
God.     But  in  the    Wisdom  of  Solomo7i  Philosophy  has  recovered 


324  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

its  balance,  theoretical  and  practical  are  harmonised.  The  prin- 
ciple underlying  the  All  —  an  All  which  takes  in  past,  present,  and 
future  —  has  again  become  Wisdom,  and  is  again  contemplated 
with  rapture ;  detailed  maxims  of  practical  life  have  disappeared, 
except  so  far  as  they  are  items  in  a  universal  system.  But  this 
final  achievement  of  philosophic  reflection  has  been  brought  about 
by  drawing  within  the  field  of  thought  something  which  has  not 
been  obtained  from  philosophy  :  it  is  the  tacit  assumption  of  a 
future  world  that  has  reversed  the  conclusions  of  Ecclesiastes. 
And  when  this  final  stage  of  Wisdom  literature  has  been  reached, 
the  conception  of  '  Wisdom  '  itself  has  become  so  deep  and  so 
many-sided  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  discuss  it  without 
trenching  upon  the  deepest  mysteries  of  Theology. 


Book  Fifth 


BIBLICAL    LITERATURE    OF    PROPHECY 


Chapter  Page 

XIV.  Forms  of  Prophetic  Literature      ....  327 

XV.  Forms  of  Prophetic  Literature  :  The  Doom  Song  353 

XVL  Forms  OF  Prophetic  Literature  :  The  Rhapsody  .  364 

XVn.  The  Rhapsody  of  'Zion  Redeemed  '  [Isa.  xl-lxvi]    .  395 

XVIIL  The  Works  of  the  Prophets 417 


CHAPTER  XIV  ■ 

FORMS    OF    PROPHETIC    LITERATURE 

We  commence  in  this  chapter  another  of  the  grand  depart- 
ments of  Bibhcal  literature ;  and  our  first  difficulty  is  its  name  — 
Prophecy.  By  one  of  those  silent  changes  in  the  pjopj^ecy  ^s  a 
signification  of  words,  which  are  brought  about  by  department  of 
the  wear  and  tear  of  ordinary  speech,  this  word  ^^^''^t"''^ 
*  Prophecy '  has,  for  about  a  century,  narrowed  itself,  in  common 
parlance,  to  the  sense  of  '  prediction  ' ;  and  there  are  many  readers 
of  the  Bible  to  whom  the  term  suggests  nothing  more  than  the 
foretelling  of  the  future.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  Hebrew 
prophets  dealt  with  the  future,  as  they  dealt  with  the  present  and 
the  past.  But  the  reference  to  future  time  is  not  the  sole,  nor 
even  the  chief,  function  of  the  literature  we  are  about  to  survey. 
The  pro-  in  prophecy  is  not  the  pro-  that  means  '  before  '  but  the 
pro-  .that  means  '  forth  ' :  Prophecy  is  a  forth-pouring  or  out- 
pouring of  discourse.  That  such  out-pouring  of  discourse  belongs, 
not  only  to  the  thing  described,  but  also  to  the  signification  of 
the  English  word,  is  powerfully  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  father 
of  the  Anglican  Church  and  great  master  of  English  prose,  writing 
in  the  seventeenth  century  a  work  in  which  he  was  to  plead  for 
the  freedom  of  the  English  pulpit,  gave  to  it  the  title  :  '  Liberty  of 
Prophesying.'  The  true  distinction  of  this  department  of  Biblical 
literature  lies  in  its  presenting  itself  as  the  channel  of  an  immediate 
Divine  message:  "Thus  saith  the  Lord"  is  con-  PonnsofPro- 
tained  explicitly  or  implicitly  in  every  utterance  of  phetic  Literature 
the  prophets.     The  essence  of  Prophecy  then  belongs  to  its  spirit 

327 


32S  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

and  matter  :  what  more  of  description  is  needed  will  be  given  by 
distinguishing  the  various  forms  in  which  the  prophetic  matter  can 
be  conveyed. 

The  simplest  form  of  Prophecy,  and  the  form  of  most  frequent 
occurrence,  is  the  Prophetic  Discourse  :  counterpart  to  the  modern 
The  Prophetic  Sermon.  The  Divine  message  essential  to  Prophecy 
Discourse  is  not  to  be  understood  as  the  Discourse  itself,  but 

rather,  in  theory  at  least,  as  the  subject  or  text  of  the  Discourse, 
which  all  the  rest  is  to  explain  or  enforce.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  important  to  note  a  word  which  even  in  the  Bible  itself 
(The  word  seems  to  be  used  as  a  technical  term  :  —  the  word 

'Burden')  translated   'Burden,'  in  the  tides  to  chapters  of 

Prophecy,  and  in  the  text  itself.^  It  would  appear  that  this  was 
understood  of  the  actual  Divine  message,  though  the  term  was 
abused  by  false  prophets  as  a  name  under  which  to  clothe  their 
own  imaginings. 

Jeremiah  Behold,  I  am  against  them  that  prophesy  lying  dreams,  saith  the 
xxiu.  32  Lord,  and  do  tell  them,  and  cause  my  people  to  err  by  their  Hes, 
and  by  their  vain  boasting :  yet  I  sent  them  not,  nor  commanded 
them;  neither  shall  they  profit  this  people  at  all,  saith  the  LORD. 
And  when  this  people,  or  the  prophet,  or  a  priest,  shall  ask  thee, 
saying,  What  is  the  burden  of  the  Lord  ?  then  shalt  thou  say  unto 
them,  What  burden !  I  will  cast  you  off,  saith  the  Lord.  And  as  for 
the  prophet,  and  the  priest,  and  the  people,  that  shall  say.  The  bur- 
den of  the  Lord,  I  will  even  punish  that  man  and  his  house.  Thus 
shall  ye  say  every  one  to  his  neighbour,  and  every  one  to  his  brother, 
What  hath  the  Lord  answered?  and.  What  hath  the  Lord  spoken? 
And  the  burden  of  the  Lord  shall  ye  mention  no  more :  for  every 
man's  own  word  is  his  burden,  and  ye  pervert  the  words  of  the  living 
God,  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  our  God. 

In  the  Prophetic  Discourses  as  they  have  reached  us,  however, 
the  text  and  recommendatory  matter  seem  fused  together  without 
distinction.  Such  merging  of  a  Divine  message  in  the  exhortations 
enforcing  it  may  be  illustrated  from  that  which  is  the  prototype 

iThe  word  substituted  by  R.  V.  (in  titles,  but  not  in  the  text)  is  '  Oracles' :  this 
explains  the  usage  by  a  parallel  term  in  secular  literatures. 


THE  PROPHETIC  DISCOURSE  329 

of  all  Prophetic  Discourses,  —  the  Ten  Commandments.  The 
versions  of  the  Ten  Commandments  in  Exodus  and  in  Deuter- 
onomy, though  each  is  introduced  with  the  formula,  "  The  Lord 
spake  .  .  .  saying,"  yet  differ,  not  verbally  only,  but  in  substance  ; 
in  particular,  the  reason  assigned  for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath 
is  entirely  different  in  the  two  books.  The  natural  explanation  of 
this  is  to  understand  that  the  actual  commandment  inscribed  on 
tables  of  stone  would  be  limited  to  the  imperative  clause,  "  Thou 
shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,"  "  Remember  the 
Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy "  ;  in  the  simple  commandments 
directed  against  murder  or  theft  nothing  more  would  be  needed, 
but  in  the  more  spiritual  commandments  comment  would  be  added 
by  Moses,  based  on  his  general  intercourse  with  God,  and  not 
upon  the  Divine  words  of  any  particular  occasion.  A  similar 
intermingling  of  message  and  exhortation  extends  throughout  the 
whole  hterature  of  Prophecy.  And  a  passage  in  Ezekiel  shows  us 
that,  even  in  the  times  of  the  prophets  themselves,  the  rhetorical 
element  in  their  discourses  was  coming  to  be  regarded  as  a  sepa- 
rate interest. 

Son  of  man,  the  children  of  thy  people  talk  of  thee  by  the  walls 
and  in  the  doors  of  the  houses,  and  speak  one  to  another,  every  one 

to  his  brother,  saying,  Come,  I  pray  you,  and  hear  what  is 

Czckicl 

the  word  that  cometh  forth  from  the  Lord.  .  ,  .     And, 

xxxiii.  30 

lo,  thou  art  unto  them  as  a  very  lovely  song  of  one  that 

hath  a  pleasant  voice,  and  can  play  well  on  an  instrument :  for  they 
hear  thy  words,  but  they  do  them  not. 

When  the  discourses  of  Prophecy  are  analysed   as   pieces  of 

literature,  we  find,  as  we  should  expect,  that  they  do  not  as  a  rule 

exhibit   any   clear   structural   plan,  but  rather   contain   warning, 

description,  reflection,  intermingling  in  a  fervour  of  appeal.     A 

typical  discourse  is  that  which  makes  the  opening  chapter 
\.   ,.     .    ,  ,  ,       .  ,  ,-     ,  ■,  1  1     ,T  •  Isaiah  i 

of  Isaiah ;  where  the  idea  of  children  rebelling  against  a 

Divine  parent,  of  the  abject  condition  of  the  people  leading  them 
to  fresh  sin,  of  their  intentness  on  sacrifices  and  neglect  of  right- 
eousness, the  golden  hopes  held   out  to  them,   the   picture   of 


330  BIBUCAL  UTERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

universal  corruption  with  the  threat  of  terrible  purging  that  shall 
leave  no  more  than  a  small  remnant,  —  all  combine  in  a  rush  of 
passionate  thought  that  has  no  need  of  logical  arrangement. 

There  are,  however,  some  discourses  which  have  structural  as 

well  as  other  interest.     The  elaborate  manifesto  of  Isaiah  which 

follows   the  opening  chapter  commences  with   an 

Isaiah  ii-iv  r  s  r 

ideal  picture  of  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house 

established  at  the  head  of  the  mountains,  and  all  nations  flowing 
to  it  to  learn  His  ways,  beating  their  swords  into  ploughshares  for  an 
era  of  universal  peace.  In  the  hght  of  such  a  picture  the  prophet 
invites  the  house  of  Jacob  to  walk :  and  so  plunges  into  denun- 
ciator}- portrayal  of  corruption  and  idolatr\',  against  which  he 
places  in  contrast  the  terror  of  the  majesty  of  the  Lord.  The 
general  upsetting  of  natural  relations  he  makes  the  beginning  of 
judgment  on  oppression ;  the  luxury  of  women  he  scomfiilly 
details,  and  threatens  the  nemesis  that  is  coming  upon  it.  From 
such  ideas  of  judgment  the  prophet  passes,  by  the  image  of  a 
young  shoot  from  an  old  tree,  to  the  remnant  of  Israel  that  shall 
be  again  beautiful,  cleansed  from  pollution,  and  blest  again  with 
the  nightly  fire  and  daily  cloud  of  Divine  guidance.  S>  to  frame 
a  denunciation  between  pictures  of  a  golden  age  at  the  beginning 
and  end,  gives  an  indi\-idualit\-  of  plan  to  this  deUverance  of  Isaiah. 
A  discourse  of  Ezekiel,  again,  has  distinctiveness  of  form  given 
to  it  by  its  being  cast  wholly  in  the  mould  of 
pastoral  ideas  and  scenery.  God  declares  Him- 
self against  the  Shepherds  of  Israel,  that  feed  themselves  and  not 
the  sheep. 

Ye  eat  the  fat,  and  ye  clothe  you  with  the  wool,  ye  kill  the  fatlings; 
but  ye  feed  not  the  sheep.  The  diseased  have  ye  not  strengthened, 
neither  have  ye  healed  that  which  was  sick,  neither  have  ye  bound 
up  that  which  was  broken,  neither  have  ye  brought  again  that  which 
was  driven  away,  neither  have  ye  sought  that  which  was  lost;  but 
with  force  and  with  rigour  have  ye  ruled  over  them. 

Still  under  the  name  of  sheep  is  described  the  loss  of  God's  people, 
wandering  without  rescue  until  He  shall  seek  them  out  Himself. 


THE  PROPHETIC  DISCOURSE  331 

As  a  shepherd  seeketh  out  his  flock  in  the  day  that  he  is  among  his 
sheep  that  are  scattered  abroad,  so  will  I  seek  out  my  sheep;  and  I 
will  deliver  them  out  of  all  places  whither  they  have  been  scattered 
in  the  cloudy  and  dark  day.  And  I  will  bring  them  out  from  the 
peoples,  and  gather  them  from  the  countries,  and  will  bring  them  into 
their  own  land ;  and  I  will  feed  them  upon  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
by  the  watercourses,  and  in  all  the  inhabited  places  of  the  country. 

Among  His  other  gifts,  God  will  feed  them  with  the  'judgment '  that 
makes  distinction  between  oppression  and  meekness. 

Seemeth  it  a  small  thing  unto  you  to  have  fed  upon  the  good  past- 
ure, but  ye  must  tread  down  with  your  feet  the  residue  of  your 
pasture?  and  to  have  drunk  of  the  clear  waters,  but  ye  must  foul 
the  residue  with  your  feet?  And  as  for  my  sheep,  they  eat  that 
which  ye  have  trodden  with  your  feet,  and  they  drink  that  which  ye 
have  fouled  with  your  feet.  Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  God 
imto  them :  Behold,  I,  even  I,  will  judge  between  the  fat  cattle  and 
the  lean  cattle. 

As  usual,  the  prophecy  works  towards  the  thought  of  restoration, 
and  a  purified  people  amid  ideal  surroundings. 

And  I  will  set  up  one  shepherd  over  them,  and  he  shall  feed  them, 
even  my  servant  Da\"id ;  he  shall  feed  them,  and  he  shall  be  their 
shepherd.  And  I  the  Lord  will  be  their  God,  and  my  senant 
Da^id  prince  among  them;  I  the  Lord  have  spoken  it.  And  I  will 
make  with  them  a  covenant  of  peace,  and  will  cause  cntI  beasts  to 
cease  out  of  the  land :  and  they  shall  dwell  securely  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  sleep  in  the  woods.  And  I  will  make  them  and  the  places 
round  about  my  hill  a  blessing;  and  I  will  cause  the  shower  to  come 
down  in  its  season;  there  shall  be  showers  of  blessing.  And  the 
tree  of  the  field  shall  yield  its  fruit,  and  the  earth  shall  \neld  her 
increase,  and  they  shall  be  secure  in  their  land;  and  they  shall  know 
that  I  am  the  Lord,  when  I  have  broken  the  bars  of  their  yoke,  and 
have  delivered  them  out  of  the  hand  of  those  that  served  themselves 
of  them. 

With  exquisite  tenderness  the  pastoral  imager}-  has  been  maintained 
without  a  break ;  only  in  the  last  verse  is  the  image  dropped. 

And  ye  my  sheep,  the  sheep  of  my  pasture,  are  men,  and  I  am 
your  God,  saith  the  Lord  God. 


322  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

In  treating  Ljiic  Poetry  I  spoke  of  the  pendulum  structure,  or 
swaWng  of  a  poem  in  successive  sections  between  opposite  sides 
of  a  theme.  This  structure  is  ver\^  characteristic  of  Prophecy, 
especially  the  swaying  between  pictures  of  judgment  and  mercy; 
an  interpreter  should  keep  it  constantly  before  his  mind  as  a  pos- 
sible clue  to  the  connection  of  thought  in  any  portion  of  prophetic 
literature.     I  will  here  illustrate  only  with  a  very  simple  example. 

A  discourse  of  Jeremiah  opens  with  sounds  of 
Jeremiah  trembhng  and  fear,  a  picture  of  Jacob  in  time  of 

trouble  :  as  if  men  travailed  with  child,  every  man 
bowed  down  with  anguish,  and  all  faces  pale.  In  that  day,  the  next 
paragraph  declares,  the  yoke  of  slavery  shall  be  broken  from  off  his 
neck :  as  the  serv^ant  of  Jehovah  he  shall  be  brought  from  far-oflF 
lands  of  captivity  to  quiet  and  ease  in  his  own  land,  while  full  end 
is  made  of  all  the  oppressing  nations.  With  the  formula,  "  For  thus 
saith  the  Lord,"  the  next  paragraph  goes  back  to  the  conception 
of  judgment :  Jacob's  wound  is  described  as  incurable,  Jehovah  has 
wounded  him  with  the  wound  of  an  enemy,  there  is  no  medicine  nor 
plaister,  all  the  lovers  of  Jacob  have  forgotten  him  in  his  sore  need. 
With  the  coimective  '  therefore '  the  discourse  passes  to  the  reverse 
of  this  picture  :  health  restored,  adversaries  devoured,  captivity 
turned,  the  city  builded  on  its  own  heap,  with  glorj'  and  thanksgiving 
sounding  out  of  its  palaces.  Thus  to  the  instinct  of  Hebrew  poetry 
this  passing  backwards  and  forwards  between  opposites  seems  to 
present  itself  as  a  continuously  advancing  train  of  thought. 

I  have  said  that  prediction  is  only  a  secondary  element  of 
Scriptural  prophecy.  Still,  it  has  its  place,  and  occasionally  a 
whole  discourse  is  given  up  to  a  picture  of  the  future.  An  inter- 
esting example  is  the  last  of  the  discourses  ascribed  to  the  prophet 

Zechariah.  It  describes  a  '  Day  of  the  Lord '  which 
Zechariah  xiv 

is  to  come.     All  nations  will  be  gathered  agamst 

Jerusalem  to  battle ;  the  city  will  be  taken,  and  suffer  the  horrors 
of  war,  and  half  its  people  will  go  away  into  captivity,  before  the 
Lord  appears  to  save.  This  salvation  seems  to  echo  the  deliv- 
erances of  past  history.     As  the  Red  Sea  divided  to  afford  escape 


LYRIC  PJiOPIIECY  ■  333 

from  the  pursuing  Egyptians,  so  now  the  Mount  of  OUves  is 
cloven,  and  the  fugitives  escape  through  the  valley.  With  a 
reminiscence  of  the  sun  and  moon  standing  still  for  Joshua,  we 
read  of  the  succession  of  day  and  night  being  interrupted  :  at  the 
time  for  evening  there  is  still  light,  and  the  delivered  people  have, 
not  day  and  not  night,  but  "  one  day  which  is  known  unto  the 
Lord."  The  nations  that  warred  against  Jerusalem  are  smitten 
with  consuming  plagues,  the  description  of  which  recalls  the  curse 
in  Deuteronomy.  The  very  land  shall  change  its  surface,  until 
Jerusalem  alone  stands  out  on  high,  and  from  its  height  healing 
waters  flow  on  either  side  to  the  boundary  sea.  In  Jerusalem  the 
Lord  shall  reign  as  king  over  all  the  earth  :  the  nations  that  had 
fought  against  the  holy  City  shall  go  thither  to  worship,  distant 
Egypt  not  excepted,  while  drought  of  heaven  and  plagues  of  earth 
shall  unite  to  punish  those  who  fail,  A  new  age  of  holiness  is  thus 
introduced  ;  when  there  is  no  need  for  traffic  ;  when  all  life  resolves 
itself  into  journeys  to  the  sacred  feasts  ;  when  holiness  is  inscribed 
on  the  bells  of  the  horses,  and  the  meanest  pot  in  the  Lord's  house 
is  as  holy  as  the  bowls  before  the  altar. 

From  the  general  Prophetic  Discourse  a  small  variation  brings 
us  to  Lyric  Prophecy.  High-strung  oratory  easily  passes  into 
lyric  verse ;  the  more  easily  in  a  language  in  which 
prose  and  verse  overlap.  In  prophecies  of  all  types 
lyrics  may  be  interspersed.  Thus  we  have  seen  in  a  previous 
chapter  ^  how  the  Book  of  Zephaniah  resolves  itself  into  a  single 
continuous  discourse  of  the  Divine  speaker,  interrupted  at  inter- 
vals by  lyric  strains  of  comment  and  application.  In  the  course 
of  other  prophecies  we  come  upon  bursts  of  lyric  thanksgiving, 

songs  of  triumph,  or  '  taunt-songs,'  such  as  that  in 
r      •    7  r  1,       T-.   1     1  1  11    Isaiah  xlvii 

Isaiah  over  fallen  Babylon  ;  these  taunt-songs  would 

be  seen  to  play  a  great  part  in  prophetic  literature,  were  it  not 

that  (as  before  remarked")  the  dirge  rhythm  on  which  they  are 

founded  is  missed  in  our  current  translations. 

1  Above,  page  120.  2  Above,  page  157. 


334  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

But  the  term  '  Lyric  Prophecy '  is  most  fully  applicable  where  a 

complete  discourse  is  in  this  form.     A  striking  example  is  found 

in  the  early  chapters  of  Isaiah.     Its  structure  is 

Isaiah  antistrophic  :  each  of  the  four  stanzas  has  an  open- 

ix.  8-x.  4  ^  ^ 

ing  couplet,  a  closing  refrain,  and  in  the  centre  a 
quatrain  that  is  gnomic  in  character,  while  the  inter\-ening  por- 
tions of  prose  are  exegetical  of  the  rest.  Besides  this  anti- 
strophic effect,  the  reiteration  of  the  refrain  produces  an  effect 
of  crescendo  and  advance  from  the  way  in  which  tvvo  words  in 
it  — '  this  '  and  '  still '  —  gather  increase  of  meaning  with  each 
succeeding  stanza. 

DOOM   OF  THE   NORTH 


The  Lord  sent  a  word  into  Jacob, 

And  it  hath  lighted  upon  Israel. 
And  all  the  people  shall  know,  even  Ephraim  and  the  inhabitant  of 
Samaria,  that  say  in  pride  and  in  stoutness  of  heart, 

The  bricks  are  fallen, 

But  we  will  build  with  hewn  stone; 

The  sycomores  are  cut  down, 

But  we  will  change  them  into  cedars. 
Therefore  the  Lord  shall  set  up  on  high  against  him  the  adversaries 
of  Rezin,  and  shall  stir  up  his  enemies;   the  Syrians  before,  and  the 
Philistines  behind ;   and  they  shall  devour  Israel  with  open  mouth. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away. 

But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  still ! 


Yet  the  people  hath  not  turned  unto  him  that  smote  them, 
Neither  have  they  sought  the  Lord  of  hosts. 
Therefore  the  Lord  will  cut  off  from  Israel  head  and  tail,  palm- 
branch  and  rush,  in  one  day. 

The  ancient  and  the  honourable  man, 

He  is  the  head ; 
And  the  prophet  that  teacheth  lies, 
He  is  the  tail. 


LYRIC  PROPHECY  335 

For  they  that  lead  this  people  cause  them  to  err;  and  they  that  are 
led  of  them  are  destroyed.  Therefore  the  Lord  shall  not  rejoice  over 
their  young  men,  neither  shall  he  have  compassion  on  their  father- 
less and  widows :  for  every  one  is  profane  and  an  evil-doer,  and 
every  mouth  speaketh  folly. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 

But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  still ! 


For  wickedness  burneth  as  the  fire; 

It  devoureth  the  briers  and  thorns : 
yea,  it  kindleth  in  the  thickets  of  the  forest,  and  they  roll  upward  in 
thick  clouds  of  smoke.     Through  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  is 
the  land  burnt  up:  the  people  also  are  as  the  fuel  of  fire;   no  man 
spareth  his  brother. 

And  one  shall  snatch  on  the  right  hand, 
And  be  hungry; 

And  he  shall  eat  on  the  left  hand, 

And  they  shall  not  be  satisfied : 
they  shall    eat   every   man    the    flesh    of  his  own  arm :  Manasseh, 
Ephraim;     and   Ephraim,   Manasseh:    and  they  together  shall  be 
against  Judah. 

J"or  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 

But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  still  ! 


Woe  unto  them  that  decree  unrighteous  decrees, 

And  to  the  writers  that  write  perverseness : 
to  turn  aside  the  needy  from  judgement,  and  to  take  away  the  right 
of  the  poor  of  my  people,  that  widows  may  be  their  spoil,  and  that 
they  may  make  the  fatherless  their  prey  ! 

And  what  will  ye  do  in  the  day  of  visitation, 

And  in  the  desolation  which  shall  come  from  far? 

To  whom  will  ye  flee  for  help? 

And  where  will  ye  leave  your  glory? 
They  shall  only  bow  down  under  the  prisoners,  and  shall  fall  under 
the  slain. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 

But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  STILL! 


336  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

An  important  division  of  prophetic  literature  is  Symbolic  Proph- 
ecy.    If  Prophecy  in  general  is  in  the  form  of  discourses,  Sym- 
bolic   prophecies   are   discourses  with  texts ;    but 
Symbolic  ^^  \.^^\.%  taken  by  the  prophets  are  not,  like  the  texts 

of  modern  sermons,  quotations  from  the  sacred  writ- 
ings, but  object-texts,  that  is,  external  things  treated  symbolically. 
Perhaps  modern  life  has  approached  nearest  to  such  Symbolic 
Prophecy  in  the  '  Emblem  Literature,'  now  forgotten,  but  for  a 
century  or  two  the  chief  reading  of  the  religious  world.  This 
Emblem  Literature  was  made  up  of  sermons  in  verse  with  hiero- 
glyphic texts.  To  take  a  typical  case.  One  of  Quarles's  emblems 
represents  a  balance ;  in  one  scale  of  this  balance  worlds  (rep- 
resented conventionally  by  balls  with  cross  handles)  are  being 
heaped  up ;  the  other  scale  contains  nothing,  but  a  mouth  is  seen 
blowing  into  it,  and  this  empty  scale  weighs  down  the  heaped-up 
worlds  on  the  other  side.  This  hieroglyph  is  the  text :  on  the 
Symbolic  opposite  page  a  poetic  sermon  works  out  with  vigour 

Prophecy:  The       the  thought  that  worldly  goods  are  less  than  empty 
™  ^°^  breath.     In   the   same  way  there  is  an  Emblem 

Prophecy  which  has  for  its  texts,  not  exactly  pictures,  but  visible 
things  or  actions.     Jeremiah  is  commanded  to  wear  a  linen  girdle 
■in  the  eyes  of  the  people  ;  when  they  .have  become 
Jeremiah  xm,        accustomed  to  it  he  is  to  take  the  girdle  off  and 

XVlll.   I -1 7;    XXIV  ° 

hide  it  in  a  hole  of  the  rock ;  several  days  after  he 
is  to  show  it  again,  marred  and  profitable  for  nothing.  This  is  to 
be  a  text,  from  which  he  will  preach  how  Judah,  that  ought  to 
cleave  to  the  Lord  as  the  girdle  cleaveth  to  the  figure,  shall  for 
their  sins  be  seen  to  be  marred  and  useless.  Or,  again,  the  same 
prophet  is  led  to  watch  the  potter  at  work,  aiming  at  one  kind  of 
vessel,  but  if  the  clay  is  marred  making  it  at  his  pleasure  into  a 
vessel  of  a  different  kind  :  from  this  text  he  will  proclaim  that 
Israel  in  the  hands  of  Jehovah  is  but  the  clay  in  the  hands  of  the 
potter.  Or,  attention  is  called  to  baskets  of  figs  standing  before 
the  Temple,  figs  of  the  best  quality  and  figs  uneatable  :  then  is 
spoken  the  paradox  that  it  is  the  captives  carried  away  to  Babylon 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  337 

who  resemble  the  good  figs,  and  the  bad  are  those  who  think  they 
have  escaped  by  remaining  in  the  land.  An  object-text  in  one 
of  the  discourses  of  Ezekiel  seems  to  have  been  a  map. 

The  word  of  the  Lord  came  unto  me  again,  saying,  Also,  thou  son 
of  man,  appoint  thee  two  ways,  that  the  sword  of  the  king  of  Babylon 
may  come;   they  twain  shall  come  forth  out  of  one 
land :   and  mark  out  a  place,  mark  it  out  at  the    Ezekiel  xzi.  18 
head  of  the  way  to  the  city.     Thou  shall  appoint  a 
way,  for  the  sword  to  come  to  Rabbah  of  the  children  of  Ammon,  and 
to  Judah  in  Jerusalem  the  defenced.     For  the  king  of  Babylon  stood 
at  the  parting  of  the  way,  at  the  head  of  the  two  ways,  to  use  divina- 
tion: he  shook  the  arrows  to  and  fro,  he  consulted  the  teraphim,  he 
looked  in  the  liver.     In  his  right  hand  was  the  divination  for  Jeru- 
salem, to  set  battering  rams,  to  open  the  mouth  in  the  slaughter,  to 
lift  up  the  voice  with  shouting,  to  set  battering  rams  against  the 
gates,  to  cast  up  mounts,  to  build  forts. 

I  have  called  the  emblems  texts,  but  they  do  not  necessarily 
come  at  the  beginning.  A  discourse  would  be  specially  impres- 
sive when  its  close  was  accompanied  with  some  symbolic  action. 
We  find  Jeremiah  delivering  a  strain  of  unmeasured 
threatening  and  denunciation,  holding  all  the  while  Jf '"g"'^'^  ^'^' '°' 
an  earthen  bottle  in  his  hand  :  at  the  end  he  dashes 
the  bottle  to  pieces  in  token  of  the  irremediable  destruction  that 
is  to  come.  On  another  occasion  he  sends  to  the  captives  in 
Babylon  a  written  discourse  foretelling  the  total  overthrow  of  the 
oppressing  city :  he  instructs  his  deputy,  when  he  has  read  to  the 
end,  to  bind  the  book  to  a  stone  and  cast  it  into  the  Euphrates, 
emblem  of  the  future  when  Babylon  shall  sink  to  rise  no  more. 

Sometimes  the  symbolic  text  may  be  no  more  than  a  gesture. 
Ezekiel  is  to  set  his  face  towards  the  mountains  of  Israel,  when  he 
proceeds  to  denounce  the  idolatries  committed  on 

,  ,        .  .  •  1     1  •      1         1  -1  Ezekiel  vi.  i,  11 

them ;   he  is  to  smite  with  his  hands  and  stamp 
with  his  foot  as  a  starting-point  to  a  picture  of  utter  ruin.     If  such 
things  as  these  seem  too  slight  to  constitute  an  emblem,  it  must 
be  recollected  that  in  all  prophecy  reiteration  played  a  large  part. 
In  the  case  of  Jonah,  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  no  discourse  is  given 


338  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

him  to  speak,  but  only  the  cry,  "  Yet  forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall 
(Prophetic  be  overthrown,"  to  be  repeated  over  and  over  again 

Reiteration)  for  a  day  together.     And  elsewhere  there  are  sug- 

gestions of  similar  reiteration. 

Jeremiah  Therefore  thou  shalt  speak  unto  them  this  word :  Thus  saith  the 
""•  '*  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel,  Every  bottle  shall  be  filled  with  wine :  and 
they  shall  say  unto  thee,  Do  we  not  know  that  every  bottle  shall  be 
filled  with  wine?  Then  shalt  thou  say  unto  them,  Thus  saith  the 
Lord,  Behold,  I  will  fill  all  the  inhabitants  of  this  land,  even  the 
kings  that  sit  upon  David's  throne,  and  the  priests,  and  the  prophets, 
and  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  with  drunkenness. 

The  natural  interpretation  of  this  passage  is  that  the  apparent 
truism  would  be  repeated  by  the  prophet,  as  he  moved  about  the 
city,  with  a  persistency  designedly  irritating,  until  public  impa- 
tience breaking  out  in  questioning  made  a  state  of  mind  favour- 
able for  being  impressed  with  the  mystic  sense  of' the  truism. 
Similar  reiteration  may  be  understood  in  certain  discourses  of 
Ezekiel,  who  would  ejaculate  "  An  end,  an  end,"  or 

CzckiBl  vii.  3    s 

"  An  evil,  an  only  evil,"  until  curiosity  had  been 
excited,  as  by  a  riddle  :  such  curiosity  would  serve  to  emphasise 
the  discourse  which  answered  to  those  riddling  ejaculations.  It  is 
clear  that  words  so  delivered  have  as  much  objective  force  as  a 
visible  emblem. 

In  other  cases  the  symbolic  action  from  which  discourses  would 
take  their  departure  seems  to  have  been  sustained  dumb  show : 
the  sermon  would  be  acted  first,  and  preached  afterwards.  A 
notable  example  of  this  is  the  mimic  siege  which  formed  the  basis 
of  so  much  of  Ezekiel's  prophesying. 

Ezekiel  Thou  also,  son  of  man,  take  thee  a  tile,  and  lay  it  before  thee,  and 
iv.  i-v.  4  pourtray  upon  it  a  city,  even  Jerusalem  :  and  lay  siege  against  it,  and 
build  forts  against  it,  and  cast  up  a  mount  against  it;  set  camps  also 
against  it,  and  plant  battering  rams  against  it  round  about.  And 
take  thou  unto  thee  an  iron  pan,  and  set  it  for  a  wall  of  iron  between 
thee  and  the  city :  and  set  thy  face  toward  it,  and  it  shall  be  besieged, 
and  thou  shalt  lay  siege  against  it.  This  shall  be  a  sign  to  the  house 
of  Israel, 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  339 

Moreover  lie  thou  upon  thy  left  side,  and  lay  the  iniquity  of  the 
house  of  Israel  upon  it :  according  to  the  number  of  the  days  that 
thou  shalt  lie  upon  it,  thou  shalt  bear  their  iniquity.  For  I  have 
appointed  the  years  of  their  iniquity  to  be  unto  thee  a  number  of 
days,  even  three  hundred  and  ninety  days :  so  shalt  thou  bear  the 
iniquity  of  the  house  of  Israel.  And  again,  when  thou  hast  ac- 
complished these,  thou  shalt  lie  on  thy  right  side,  and  shalt  bear 
the  iniquity  of  the  house  of  Judah :  forty  days,  each  day  for  a  year, 
have  I  appointed  it  unto  thee.  And  thou  shalt  set  thy  face  toward 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  with  thine  arm  uncovered;  and  thou  shalt 
prophesy  against  it.  And,  behold,  I  lay  bands  upon  thee,  and  thou 
shalt  not  turn  thee  from  one  side  to  another,  till  thou  hast  ac- 
complished the  days  of  thy  siege.  Take  thou  also  unto  thee  wheat, 
and  barley,  and  beans,  and  lentils,  and  millet,  and  spelt,  and  put 
them  in  one  vessel,  and  make  thee  bread  thereof;  according  to  the 
number  of  the  days  that  thou  shalt  lie  upon  thy  side,  even  three  hundred 
and  ninety  days,  shalt  thou  eat  thereof.  And  thy  meat  which  thou 
shalt  eat  shall  be  by  weight,  twenty  shekels  a  day :  from  time  to  time 
shalt  thou  eat  it.  And  thou  shalt  drink  water  by  measure,  the  sixth 
part  of  an  hin  :  from  time  to  time  shalt  thou  drink. 

From  various  passages  in  the  Book   of  Ezekiel  we   are  able  to 

form  an  idea  of  the  mode  in  which  such  a  commission  would  be 

executed.     It  was  the  custom  for  companies  of  the  elders  of  Israel 

to  wait  upon  the  prophet  at  his  house,  and  sit  before      „. 

^  ^      '  '  II  Kmgs  IV.  23 

him  until "  the  hand  of  the  Lord  should  fall  upon 
him."     From  the  historical  books  we  know  that  such  visits  to  the 
prophets  were  periodical,  belonging  especially  to  new  moons  and 
Sabbaths ;  but  a  passage  of  Ezekiel  suggests  that 
among  the  exiles  they  took  place  daily.     We  may 
suppose  then  that  at  the  period  in  question  the  prophet  would,  for 
the  whole  time  indicated  in  the  above  passage,  receive  the  daily 
deputation  with  the  same  mimic  siege,  now  taking  the  part  of  the 
besiegers  and  now  of  the  besieged  ;  and  from  this  constant  text 
he  would  enlarge  upon  the  various  topics  of  sin  and  judgment  that 
each  day's  inspiration  brought  to  his  mind.    The  matter  contained 
in  the  chapter  that  follows  is  no  more  than  the  general  substance 
of  the  long  series  of  discourses. 


340  BIBUCAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

We  even  find  a  change  of  demeanour  and  manner  of  life,  in  so 

marked  an  individual  as  a  prophet,  made  an  emblem  under  which 

a  Di\ine  message  could  be  conveyed.     The  Lord 
Bzekiel  xxIt.  15 

takes  firom  Ezekiel  the  desire  of  his  eyes  with  a 

stroke  :  yet  he  is  neither  to  mourn  nor  weep.  This  loss  of  a 
beloved  wife  borne  without  signs  of  grief  is  to  be  a  sjTnbol  of 
sorrows  coming  upon  Israel  that  are  too  deep  for  tears.  A  still 
more  painful  experience  is  laid  upon  the  prophet 
Hosea,  who  is  commanded  to  take  a  wife  from  the 
ranks  of  fallen  women :  his  family  life,  and  the  efforts  of  the 
prophet  to  reclaim  his  charge,  are  a  li\-ing  text  for  ministr}'  to  a 
people  unfaithful  to  their  God. 

^^^len  we  consider  the  number  and  variety  in  prophetic  litera- 
ture of  these  object-texts — symbolic  articles,  symbolic  gestures  and 
ejaculations,  sj'mbolic  demeanour  and  manner  of  life  —  we  are 
able  to  see  how  this  Emblem  Prophecy  has  its  prototype  in  the 
grand  Ceremonial  Worship  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Temple.  The 
Holy  of  Holies,  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  the  Shewbread,  the  rites 
of  sacrifice  or  of  the  Scapegoat,  all  these  are  perennial  emblems 
of  those  ideas  in  Hebrew  rehgion  which  are  eternal  and  of  con- 
stant application.  In  the  same  spirit  Prophecy  uses  S}-mbols  to 
fulfil  its  ftinction  of  bringing  the  principles  of  the  religion  to  bear 
upon  the  detailed  exigencies  and  occasional  problems  of  pubUc 
and  social  life.  And  in  the  hght  of  this  analogy  we  cease  to  be 
surprised  at  the  minuteness  with  which,  in  such  a  case  as  Ezekiel's 
siege,  the  emblematic  action  is  prescribed ;  the  ceremonial  teach- 
ing of  the  prophet  is  carried  out  with  a  reverent  fidelity  to  detail 
as  great  as  in  the  elaborated  worship  of  the  Temple  itself. 

The  conception  of  a  prophetic  emblem  develops  readily  into 

another   conception   of   considerable   importance. 
»iiiMaiii  Proph- 
ecy aad  the  When  a  prophecy  had  reference  to  future  rime, 

'Sigaaftke         and  was  illustrated  with  some  sjTnbol  that  was  not 
transitory'  but  durable,  the  emblem  would  remain 
to  be  confironted  with  the  fiilnlled  prophecy,  and  so  would  vindi- 
cate the  authority  of  the  prophet.     A  prophetic  emblem  would 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  341 

then  become  a  '  sign  of  the  prophet.'     Jeremiah,  carried  by  force 
into  Egypt,  consoles  his  fellow-captives  with  pre- 
dictions of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchad-      g-i^a™'^ 
rezzar ;    he  takes  great  stones  and  hides  them  in 
the  mortar  at   the  entrance  of  Pharaoh's  palace  in  Tahpanhes, 
declaring   that   the  conqueror   "  will   set   his  throne  upon  these 
stones."     Though  the  word  is  not  used,  yet  it  is  clear  that  this 
emblematic  action  would  become  a  '  sign '^of  Jeremiah's  prophetic 
function,  when  the  event  should   take  place.     Such  '  signs  '  are 
part  of  the  recognised  machinery  of  prophecy.     Isaiah  bids  Ahaz, 
in  a  certain  political  crisis,  "  Ask  thee  a  sign  of  the 

'  °  Isaiah  vii.  lo 

Lord  thy  God  ;  ask  it  either  in  the  depth,  or  in  the 
height  above."  When  Ahaz  in  his  panic  holds  back,  the  prophet 
himself  volunteers  the  sign  of  a  virgin  conceiving  and  bearing  a 
son  and  calling  his  name  Immanuel :  that  child  shall  not  be  old 
enough  to  know  good  from  evil  before  the  prophet's  prediction 
concerning  the  war  shall  be  seen  to  be  fulfilled.^     It  is  to  be 

observed,  however,  that  the  word  '  sign '  is  also,  in  prophetic  liter- 

* 

1  In  regard  to  the  meaning  of  this  much  disputed  passage,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  the  difficulties  disappear  if  the  words  of  the  prophet  be  understood  to  apply, 
not  to  any  virgin  of  Judah  (real  or  idealised),  but  to  a  woman  of  the  enemy's  land. 
The  expression  '  Immanuel '  occurs  three  times,  (i)  First,  in  the  passage  vii.  lo- 
i6.  The  situation  here  is  that  the  junction  of  Israel  with  Syria  has  thrown  the 
princes  of  Judah  into  a  panic,  and  the  prophet  strengthens  them  by  pouring  con- 
tempt upon  the  enemy.  So  elated  and  confident  at  this  moment  (he  says)  is  the 
enemy  that  a  woman  of  their  land  gives  her  new-born  child  the  proud  name,  '  God 
with  us '  :  but  that  child  will  soon  be  feeding  on  famine  fire  [that  '  butter  and 
honey'  is  a  name  for  famine  fare  is  shown  by  verse  22]  :  for  before  the  child  is  old 
enough  to  distinguish  good  food  from  evil  the  enemy's  land  whose  allied  kings 
cause  this  panic  to  Judah  shall  be  forsaken  by  these  kings.  (2)  The  phrase  occurs 
a  second  time  in  viii.  5-8.  This  whole  paragraph  is  addressed  to  the  enemy,  Israel ; 
and  the  Assyrian,  under  the  image  of  a  flood,  is  described  as  overflowing  the  land 
of  Israel  [there  is  no  reference  to  Judah  except  the  single  clause,  "  he  shall  sweep 
onward  into  Judah  "]  :  the  climax  is,  the  flood  shall  fill  thy  land,  O  boaster  of  "  God 
with  us."  (3)  The  third  recurrence  of  the  phrase  is  in  viii.  10,  where  the  false  boast 
of  Israel  is  claimed  for  Judah  as  a  truth  :  lay  your  schemes  (the  prophet  cries  to 
the  allied  enemies)  and  they  shall  come  to  nought,  for  "  God  is  with  us."  Of  course 
this  explanation  relates  to  the  primary  interpretation  of  the  piece  of  historic  proph- 
ecy :  it  need  not  interfere  with  any  theological  use  of  the  term  '  Immanuel '  as  a 
secondary  interpretation  ;  indeed,  the  third  passage,  which  claims  the  true  '  Imman- 
uel '  for  Judah,  is  basis  enough  for  such  interpretation. 


5+2  BIBLICAL  UTERA  Tl'RE   OF  PROPHECY 

atore,  appfied  to  what  we  hare  here  called  the  emUein ;  tfaos 
Elzekiel  carrring  on  his  si^e,  or  Tefraining  firom 
^^*^*^*  ^'  tears  at  his  wife's  death,  is  proootmced  bjr  the  Lord 
to  be  a  '  sign '  to  the  people.  The  variation  be- 
tween the  two  meanings  of  the  word — between  the  *  sign '  which 
is  a  symlx^  iUostiation  of  the  prophecy,  and  the  '  sign  '  which  is 
a  miracalons  vindication  of  the  prophet  —  is  the  index  of  an  impor- 
tant tendency  in  the  attitude  of  the  poUic  mind  towards  prophecy, 
by  which  the  spiritual  f<xce  of  prophetic  ntteiances  came  to  be 
more  and  more  igmxed,  and  die  dement  of  predictirai  and  miracle 
grew  into  emphasis.  So  ^  has  this  tendency  prevailed  in  the 
age  of  the  New  Testament  that  the  constant  and  indignant  com- 
plaint of  JesDS  Christ  is  against  a  "generati(Hi  that  seeketfa  a  sign." 

The  Prophecy  of  Vision  is.  yi  its  elementary  form,  hardly  dis- 
rjMirtii  riwM  tinguished  from  Emblem  Prophecy:  the  emUem 
err  ite  texts  are  merely  presented  in  sapeniatnral  Yisi«v 

^**"  instead  of  being  sgen  by  the  ordinary  eyesi^t. 

The  books  of  Amos  and  Zechariah  are  full  of  sach  visi<»  emblems. 
Bat  die  sopreme  example  of  them  is  Ezekiel's  Vision  iA  the  Vallej 
of  Dry  Bones.  He  is  carried  oat  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Lord  and  set  down  in  the  midst  of  the  valley ; 
the  vaDey  is  full  of  bones,  and  k>,  they  are  very  dry.  He  is  com- 
manded to  ]m>phesy :  and  as  he  poors  fixth  his  speech  there  is 
thondering  and  earthquake ;  bone  comes  to  his  Ixme,  flesh  and 
skin  cover  them ;  from  the  foor  winds  comes  l^eath,  and  Ixeathes 
npcHi  the  slain,  and  they  liv^  and  stand  npon  their  feet,  an  ex- 
ceeding great  army.  Thns  impressively  is  daborated,  in  the 
region  of  the  sapeniatnral,  a  symbolic  teirt,  from  which  Ezekiel 
preaches  that  Israd  with  its  dead  hopes  shaD  come  oat  of  its 
graves,  and  feel  the  life-giving  Iweath  of  the  LcmL 

But  this  elementary  conceptioii  of  Vision  Proph- 
ecy ondeigoes  a  devek^ment  similaf  to  diat  traced 
in  the  last  section.    As  the   prophetic   emblem, 
when  applied  to  futurity,  tended  to  change  into  the  '  sign  of  the 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  343 

prophet,'  so  the  vision  emblem  develops  into  the  '  Revelation,'  as 
that  word  is  generally  understood,  namely,  the  supernatural  revela- 
tion of  the  future.     It  is  worth  while  to  distinguish 

three    types   among   such   Visions    of   Revelation.   Revelation  of 

•'  ^  °  the  Future 

First,  we  have  the  case  in  which  the  vision  is  sym- 
bolic and  supernatural,  whereas  the  interpretation  comes  by  natural 
means.  The  fingers  of  a  hand  writing  on  the  wall  startle  Belshaz- 
zar's  feast  with  mystic  words  :  Daniel  by  his  wisdom  discovers 
the  meaning,  and  the  destruction  that  is  about  to  come.  In  the 
second  type  an  interpreter  is  provided  by  supernatural  means, 
and  the  vision  is  given  by  him  in  direct  speech.  Thus  Daniel, 
troubling  over  the  mysteries  of  times  and  seasons,  feels  himself 
'  touched  '  by  an  angel  at  the  time  of  the  evening  oblation,  and 
Gabriel  foretells  what  shall  come  to  pass  in  terms  that  _are  direct, 
however  difficult.  To  this  second  category  may  be  referred  the 
Calls  of  the  Prophets  :  visionary  scenes  in  which  God  himself 
appears  under  symbolic  forms,  but  the  commission  is  given  to  the 
prophet  in  plain  language.  In  the  third  type  both  the  vision  and 
the  interpretation  are  symbolic  and  supernatural ;  as  where  the 
future  interchange  of  dynasties  is  conveyed  to  Daniel  in  the  vision 
of  the  Four  Beasts,  or  the  vision  of  the  Ram  and  the  He-goat, 
while  the  significance  of  what  he  sees  is  explained  by  a  personage 
of  the  vision  itself. 

But  it  is  important  to  distinguish  from  this  another  meaning  of 
the  word  '  Revelation  ' ;  we  find  visions  that  are  revelations,  not 
of  the  future,  but  of  the  law  and  pattern  of  things. 

As  the  one  kind  of  vision  is  an  extension  of  the   p^e^^tioio^ 

Law  and  Ideal 
prophetic  dream,  so  the  other  has  for  its  prototype 

the  original  revelation  to  Moses  on  the  mount  of  the  ceremonial 
law  and  the  pattern  of  the  Tabernacle.    Important  examples  of  the 
two  types  of  Revelation  are  Ezekiel's  companion  visions  of  Jeru- 
salem under   Judgment  and  Jerusalem  Restored, 
which  cover  no  less  than  thirteen  chapters  of  his   Ezekiei  vm-xi 

'^  and  xl-xlviii 

book.     The  two  are  separated,  in  conformity  with 

the  general  arrangement  of  Ezekiel's  writings,  and  their  division 


34+  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

between  prophecies  of  judgment  and  of  restoration ;  but  that  the 
two  are  parts  of  one  whole  is  expressly  said  in  the  vision  itself. 
In  the  first  case  Ezekiel  is  carried  "in  the  visions  of 
God  "  to  Jerusalem,  and  beholds  the  Glory  of  the  God 
of  Israel  as  on  the  occasion  of  his  own  call.  He  is  made  to  dig 
through  the  Temple  wall  and  see  idolatrous  practices  carried  on 
in  its  chambers  and  precincts  ;  agents  of  destruction  do  their  work 
before  his  eyes,  and  he  sees  the  city  sprinkled  with  ashes  taken 
from  between  the  cherubim  ;  he  is  himself  called  to  bear  a  part  in 
the  work  of  judgment,  and  as  he  prophesies  he  sees  one  of  the 
leaders  of  iniquity  fall  dead.  All  the  scene  so  described  makes 
up  the  symbol  of  this  vision.  We  are  not  to  understand  that  the 
weeping  for  Tammuz,  or  the  creeping  abominations,  were  neces- 
sarily to  b»  seen  in  just  the  spot  where  Ezekiel  beholds  them,  any 
more  than  we  are  to  understand  that  Pelatiah  actually  died  at  the 
time  when  Ezekiel  was  under  the  prophetic  spell.  The  whole  is  a 
symbolic  representation  of  the  general  idolatry  and  desecration  of 
the  sacred  city.  The  companion  vision  shows  a  great  change  from 
this  symbolism.  The  same  supernatural  agency  transports  the 
prophet  to  the  same  spot.  But  what  he  sees  is  a  city  and  temple 
gradually  taking  shape,  and  measured  with  exactness  of  propor- 
tions which  he  is  commanded  to  store  in  his  memory.  The  Glory 
of  the  God  of  Israel  proclaims  this  the  place  of  his  throne  for 
ever,  and,  in  phrases  which  seem  to  echo  Exodus,  calls  upon  the 
house  of  Israel  to  "  measure  the  pattern,"  or  to  receive  this  as 
"the  law  of  the  house."  Then  is  continued  the  ordering  of  city, 
temple,  ritual,  and  even  division  of  the  land  of  Palestine,  with  a 
minuteness  which  seems  hke  the  former  revelation  on  Sinai  adapted 
to  a  new  dispensation.  Throughout  the  whole  nine  chapters  there 
is  scarcely  anything  that  can  be  called  symbolic,  except  the  con- 
ception of  the  Hving  waters  issuing  from  the  Temple  and  flowing 
to  fertilise  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  banks  of  which  are  the  never- 
withering  trees,  with  their  fruits  renewed  month  by  month  and 
their  leaves  for  healing.  In  the  course,  then,  of  this  extended 
vision  v/e  are  able  to  watch  the  transition  from  one  type  of  revela- 


PROPHETIC  INPERCOUKSE  345 

tion  to  another ;  while  the  symboHc  is  the  distinction  of  the  one, 
in  the  other  the  symboHc  passes  into  the  ideal.  In  the  interpre- 
tation of  Prophecy  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  distinguish 
to  which  of  these  two  types  of  revelation  any  particular  vision 
belongs. 

Symbolic  Prophecy  has  detained  us  a  long  time ;  it  remains  to 

point  out  that,  in  addition  to  Emblem   Prophecy 

and  Vision  Prophecy,  it  includes  a  third  branch,—  ^y°'^°!!'=  ^"""p^: 
^        •"  '  ecy:  The  Parable 

the   Prophetic   Parable.     This  is  again  a  sermon 
with  a  symbolic  text :  the  only  difference  is  that  the  emblem  is 
here  narrated  instead  of  being  visibly  presented.     Such  a  para- 
bolic text  has  its  ultinnate  basis  in  the  Fable  of 
primitive  literature.^     Isaiah's  Parable  of  the  Vine- 
yard, so  favourably  placed  and  carefully  tended,  yet  bringing  forth 
wild  grapes,  is  amongst  the  most  familiar  portions  of  prophetic 
hterature.     The  same  symbol  is  differently  used  in 
a  parable  of  Ezekiel,  who  treats  the  vine  as  the  ^zekiei  xv,  xvi, 

■^  '  _  XVll,  XXlll 

one  wood  that  is  profitable  for  no  use.  This  latter 
prophet  is  specially  fond  of  parabolic  discourse,  and  his  favourite 
symbol  seems  to  be  that  of  an  unfaithful  spouse  ;  in  a  way  peculiar 
to  himself  he  works  out  this  theme  with  a  wonderful  combination 
of  tenderness  and  unsparing  plainness  of  speech.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  remark  upon  the  prominence  assumed  in  a  later 
age  by  this  particular  type  of  discourse  :  of  the  supreme  Prophet 
of  the  New  Testament  it  is  said  that  "  without  a  parable  spake 
he  not." 

Prophetic  Intercourse  makes  a  literary  division  that  does  not 
need  lengthy  discussion.     The  intercourse  of  the  prophet  with 

1  The  Fable  as  a  literary  form  is  defined  by  its  conveying  human  interest  under 
the  disguise  of  inferior  beings.  It  is  observable  that  the  two  specimens  of  the 
primitive  Fable  in  Scripture  {Judges  ix.  8-15  and  //  Kings  xiv.  9)  are  of  the  kind 
that  ascribe  human  thoughts  to  things  of  tiie  vegetable  world.  The  other  great 
division  of  Fables,  that  which  puts  human  speech  into  the  mouth  of  brutes,  is  not 
represented  in  the  Bible,  unless,  as  some  commentators  suppose,  the  incident  of 
Balaam  and  his  ass  be  such  a  Fable  incorporated  in  the  narrative. 


346  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  rROPIIECY 

God   constitutes    legitimate    matter   of  prophecy.      Besides    the 

visions  of  their  call  to  the  office  of  prophet,  both 

Prophetic  Inter-     Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  have  set  forth  in  their  books 

course:  (i)  with     "^  .  ,  .   ,     ,  .  ^    j   c  i_ 

God  communmgs  which  do  not  seem  mtended  tor  pub- 

lication to  the  people.  We  find  also  Dialogues  of 
Intercession  (either  standing  alone,  or  merged  in  other  prophe- 
cies), of  which  the  great  prototype  is  Abraham's  intercession  for 
Sodom. 

Again,  there  is  the  intercourse  of  the  prophet  with  enquirers. 

From  the  earliest  history  we  read  of  persons  '  enquiring  of  the 

Lord,'  and  receiving  oracles  in  reply.     Thus  Re- 

(2)  with  enquir-    ^^^j^^j^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^j^^-^.  ^^^^-^  ^^^  destiny  of  her 

twin  children ;  Saul  enquiring  found  no  answer, 
"by  dreams,  nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  prophets."  We  find,  as  a 
regular  custom,  that  deputations  visit  the  prophet,  and  wait  till 
inspiration  falls  upon  him,  and  so  receive  his  Response.     With 

this  is  connected  what  may  be  called  an  artificial 
(Dialectic  £qj.j^^   q£-  pj-Qpiiecy,   in  which   there   is   no   actual 

interview  between  the  prophet  and  another  inter- 
locutor, but  the  discourse  takes  the  form  of  a  reply  to  an  imagi- 
nary objection  or  interruption.  The  whole  of  Malachi  seems 
constructed  in  this  form  of  Dialectic  Prophecy.  Its  paragraphs 
uniformly  take  a  shape  that  may  be  thus  represented : 

r  A  Complaint 

\  An  interposed  Objection 

I  The  answering  Discourse 

In  some  cases  the  objection  is  duplicated,  as  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  brief  condensation  : 

Instead  of  honouring,  the  priests  despise  God's  name. 

IVkerein  despise  it  ? 
In  offering  polluted  bread  upon  his  altar. 

Wherein  polluted  ? 
The  Answering  Discourse  puts  the  cheapening  of  offerings  made  to 
.  the  Lord,  and  how  the  ideal  of  the  priesthood  is  "reversed. 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  347 

Once  more,  Prophecy  includes  the  intercourse  of  the  prophet 
with  the  world  in  general.  The  books  narrate  Incidents,  hke  the 
conspiracy  of  his  native  Anathoth  against  Jeremiah, 
or  the  burning  of  his  roll  by  the  king,  or  the  ^^^l  *  ^ 
casting  of  Daniel  into  a  den  of  lions ;  or  Contro- 
versies, like  that  stirred  up  by  Jeremiah's  wearing  the  emblem  of 
the  yoke.  These  Incidents  (illustrations  of  which  are  given  in 
the  Table  of  Prophecy)  make  an  approach  to  the  Epic  Prophecy 
discussed  in  a  former  book.  More  than  this,  the  department 
of  Prophecy  overlaps  with  that  of  History,  as  whole  sections  of 
the  prophetic  books  show.  What  Nathan  was  to  David,  that  the 
whole  succession  of  greater  and  minor  prophets  were  to  later 
history.  The  secular  kingship  had  its  orders  of  officials ;  the 
order  of  prophets  were  the  representatives  of  the  higher  theoc- 
racy, and  their  action  in  each  crisis  makes  a  part  at  once  of 
Prophecy  and  History. 

We  find  ourselves  on  a  different  literary  plane  when  we  come 
to  Dramatic  Prophecy.     To  constitute  this  a  scene  or  situation 
must   be   presented   entirely  by  dialogue,  without 
any  description   or   comment   from    the   prophet,   prophecy 
except  so  far  as  he  may  be  a  party  to  the  scene. 
These  dramatic  scenes  are  highly  interesting ;  but  the  absence  in 
ancient  literatures  of  any  attempt  to  indicate  the  speakers  in  pas- 
sages of  dialogue  has  led  to  much  obscurity  and  misinterpretation. 

A  simple  illustration  occurs  in  the  Book  of  Micah,  and  may 

be    entitled,    'The    Lord's   Controversy   before   the    Mountains.' 

Tehovah  calls  upon  the  Mountains  to  hear  his  con- 

■'  ^  1  ,r  J      Micah  vi.  1-8 

troversy  with   his  people ;    and    hmiself  proceeds 

to  arraign  Israel,  rehearsing  his  long-continued  kindnesses,  and 

citing  Balaam  as  his  witness  to  the  blessings  bestowed  on  Jacob. 

Then  the  other  party  to  the  controversy  is  afraid  to  put  in  an 

appearance. 

Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord,  and  bow  myself  before 
the  high  God?  shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt  offerings,  with 


34S  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

calves  of  a  year  old?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of 
rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil?  Shall  I  give  my  first- 
born for  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul? 

The  Mountains  may  then  be  understood  to  pronounce  judgment. 

He  hath  shewed  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good;  and  what  doth  the 
Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love  mercy,  and  to 
walk  humbly  with  thy  God  ? 

This  dramatic  scene  is  immediately  followed  by  another  some- 
what more  extended  in  form.  The  passage  is  headed:  "The 
voice  of  the  Lord  crieth  unto  the  city,  and  the 
man  of  wisdom  will  fear  thy  name."  This  title 
suggests  that  we  have  in  '  the  Man  of  Wisdom  '  an  addition  to 
what  may  be  called  the  natural  dramatis  persofice,  namely,  God, 
the  Prophet,  and  the  offending  People,  which  last  may  in  this 
case  be  termed  the  Men  of  Folly.  The  voice  of  God  is  heard 
denouncing  injustice,  violence,  and  the  "  statutes  of  Omri " ; 
wounding,  humiliation,  famine,  are  threatened,  until  the  people  of 
the  wicked  city  shall  become  a  desolation  and  a  hissing.  This 
interposition  of  Jehovah  throws  the  wicked  of  the  city  into  confu- 
sion, while  the  wise  see  in  it  their  salvation. 

The  Men  of  Folly.  — Woe  is  me  I  for  I  am  as  when  they  have  gath- 
ered the  summer  fruits,  as  the  grape  gleanings  of  the  vintage :  there 
is  no  cluster  to  eat ;  nor  first-ripe  fig  which  my  soul  desired.  The 
godly  man  is  perished  out  of  the  earth,  and  there  is  none  upright 
among  men :  they  all  lie  in  wait  for  blood ;  they  hunt  every  man  his 
brother  with  a  net.  Both  hands  are  put  forth  for  evil  to  do  it;  the 
prince  asketh,  and  the  judge  is  ready  for  a  reward;  and  the  great 
man,  he  uttereth  the  mischief  of  his  soul :  thus  they  weave  it  to- 
gether. The  best  of  them  is  as  a  brier:  the  straightest  is  as  it  were 
taken  from  a  thorn  hedge  :  the  day  of  thy  watchmen,  even  thy  visi- 
tation, is  come;  now  shall  be  their  perplexit)-.  Trust  ye  not  in  a 
friend,  put  ye  not  confidence  in  a  guide :  keep  the  doors  of  thy 
mouth  from  her  that  lieth  in  thy  bosom.  For  the  son  dishonoureth 
the  father,  the  daughter  riseth  up  against  her  mother,  the  daughter- 
in-law  against  her  mother-in-law;  a  man's  enemies  are  the  men  of 
his  own  house. 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  349 

The  Man  of  IVisdom.  —  But  as  for  me,  I  will  look  unto  the  Lord; 
I  will  wait  for  the  God  of  my  salvation :  my  God  will  hear  me. 
Rejoice  not  against  me,  O  mine  enemy:  when  I  fall,  I  shall  arise; 
when  I  sit  in  darkness,  the  Lord  shall  be  a  light  unto  me.  I  will 
bear  the  indignation  of  the  Lord,  because  I  have  sinned  against 
him;  until  he  plead  my  cause,  and  execute  judgement  for  me:  he 
will  bring  me  forth  to  the  light,  and  I  shall  behold  his  righteousness. 
Then  mine  enemy  shall  see  it,  and  shame  shall  cover  her;  which 
said  unto  me.  Where  is  the  Lord  thy  God?  Mine  eyes  shall  behold 
her;   now  shall  she  be  trodden  down  as  the  mire  of  the  streets. 

The  voice  of  God  is  now  heard  in  tones  of  comfort :  it  pro- 
claims the  rebuilding  of  the  city's  walls,  and  (after  an  echoing  cry 
from  the  Prophet)  describes  marvels  of  restoration  to  equal  the 
old  wonders  done  in  Egypt :  the  oppressing  nations  shall  come 
creeping  out  of  their  hiding-places,  trembling  with  fear  of  the 
Deliverer.     Then  the  Prophet  brings  the  scene  to  a  conclusion. 

The  Prophet.  —  Who  is  a  God  like  unto  thee,  that  pardoneth 
iniquity,  and  passeth  by  the  transgression  of  the  remnant  of  his  heri- 
tage? he  retaineth  not  his  anger  forever,  because  he  delighteth  in 
mercy.  He  will  turn  again  and  have  compassion  upon  us;  he  will 
tread  our  iniquities  under  foot :  and  thou  wilt  cast  all  their  sins  into 
the  depths  of  the  sea.  Thou  wilt  perform  the  truth  to  Jacob,  and 
the  mercy  to  Abraham,  which  thou  hast  sworn  unto  our  fathers 
from  the  days  of  old. 

A  slight  variation  from  this  simple  dramatic  type  is  afforded  by 
those  prophecies  in  which  only  a  single  speaker  is  presented,  — 
God  :  but  the  alternations  in  the  Divine  mind  between  judgment 
and  compassion  produce  all  the  effect  of  dialogue.  The  Divine 
Yearning  is  pictured  in  this  way  by  Hosea. 

God.  —  When  Israel  was  a  child,  then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my 
son  out  of  Egypt.  — 

As  they  called  them,  so  they  went  from  them :  they  sac-    Hosea 
rificed   unto    the   Baalim,  and   burned   incense  to  graven    xi.  i-ii 
images.  — 

Yet  I  taught  Ephraim  to  go ;  I  took  them  on  my  arms  ;  but  they 
knew  not  that  I  healed  them.     I  drew  them  with  cords  of  a  man, 


350  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

with  bands  of  love;  and  I  was  to  them  as  they  that  take  off  the 
yoke  on  their  jasvs,  and  I  laid  meat  before  them.  — 

He  shall  not  return  into  the  land  of  Egypt;  but  the  Assyrian  shall 
be  his  king,  because  they  refused  to  return.  And  the  sword  shall 
fall  upon  his  cities,  and  shall  consume  his  bars,  and  devour  them, 
because  of  their  own  counsels.  And  my  people  are  bent  to  back- 
sliding from  me :  though  they  call  them  to  him  that  is  on  high,  none 
at  all  will  exalt  him.  — 

How  shall  I  give  thee  up,  Ephraim?  how  shall  I  deliver  thee, 
Israel?  how  shall  I  make  thee  as  Admah?  how  shall  I  set  thee  as 
Zeboim?  mine  heart  is  turned  within  me,  my  compassions  are  kin- 
dled together.  I  will  not  execute  the  fierceness  of  mine  anger,  I  will 
not  return  to  destroy  Ephraim:  for  I  am  God,  and  not  man;  the 
Holy  One  in  the  midst  of  thee:  and  I  will  not  come  in  wrath. 
They  shall  walk  after  the  Lord,  who  shall  roar  like  a  lion :  for  he 
shall  roar,  and  the  children  shall  come  trembling  from  the  west. 
They  shall  come  trembling  as  a  bird  out  of  Egypt,  and  as  a  dove  out 
of  the  land  of  Assyria:  and  I  will  make  them  to  dwell  in  their 
houses,  saith  the  Lord. 

This  alternating  monologue  is  combined  with  the  dialogue  that 
involves  a  second  speaker  in  a  more  extended  composition  of  the 
same  prophet.  The  whole  may  be  entitled,  *  A  Drama  of  Re- 
pentance.' 

Hosea  God.  —  ^Vhen  Ephraim  spake  with  trembling,  he  exalted  himself 

xiii-xiv  in  Israel :  but  when  he  offended  in  Baal,  he  died.  And  now  they 
sin  more  and  more,  and  have  made  them  molten  images  of  their 
silver,  even  idols  according  to  their  own  understanding,  all  of  them 
the  work  of  the  craftsmen :  they  say  of  them.  Let  the  men  that  sacri- 
fice kiss  the  calves.  Therefore  they  shall  be  as  the  morning  cloud, 
and  as  the  dew  that  passeth  early  away,  as  the  chaff  that  is  driven 
with  the  whirlwind  out  of  the  threshing-floor,  and  as  the  smoke  out 
of  the  chimney.  — 

Yet  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God  from  the  land  of  Egypt;  and  thou 
knowest  no  god  but  me,  and  beside  me  there  is  no  saviour.  I  did 
know  thee  in  the  wilderness,  in  the  land  of  great  drought.  Accord- 
ing to  their  pasture,  so  were  they  filled;  they  were  filled,  and  their 
heart  was  exalted  :  therefore  have  they  forgotten  me.  — 

Therefore  am  I  unto  them  as  a  lion :  as  a  leopard  will  I  watch  by 
the  way :  I  will  meet  them  as  a  bear  that  is  bereaved  of  her  whelps, 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  351 

and  will  rend  the  caul  of  their  heart :  and  there  will  I  devour  them 
like  a  lion;  the  wild  beast  shall  tear  them.  It  is  thy  destruction, 
O  Israel,  that  thou  art  against  me,  against  thy  help.  Where  now  is 
thy  king,  that  he  may  save  thee  in  all  thy  cities?  and  thy  judges,  of 
whom  thou  saidst,  Give  me  a  king  and  princes?  I  have  given  thee 
a  king  in  mine  anger,  and  have  taken  him  away  in  my  wrath.  The 
iniquity  of  Ephraim  is  bound  up;  his  sin  is  laid  up  in  store.  The 
sorrows  of  a  travailing  woman  shall  come  upon  him  :  he  is  an  unwise 
son;  for  it  is  time  he  should  not  tarry  in  the  place  of  the  breaking 
forth  of  children.  — 

I  will  ransom  them  from  the  power  of  the  grave;  I  will  redeem 
them  from  death  :  O  death,  where  are  thy  plagues?  O  grave,  where 
is  thy  destruction?  — 

Repentance  shall  be  hid  from  mine  eyes.  Though  he  be  fruitful 
among  his  brethren,  an  east  wind  shall  come,  the  breath  of  the  Lord 
coming  up  from  the  wilderness,  and  his  spring  shall  become  dry,  and 
his  fountain  shall  be  dried  up :  it  shall  spoil  the  treasure  of  all  pleas- 
ant vessels.  Samaria  shall  bear  her  guilt;  for  she  hath  rebelled 
against  her  God:  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword;  their  infants  shall  be 
dashed  in  pieces,  and  their  women  with  child  shall  be  ripped  up. 

Repentant  Israel.  —  O  Israel,  return  unto  the  Lord  thy  God;  for 
thou  hast  fallen  by  thine  iniquity.  Take  with  you  words,  and  return 
unto  the  Lord  :  say  unto  him,  "  Take  away  all  iniquity,  and  receive 
us  graciously :  so  will  we  render  as  bullocks  the  offering  of  our  lips. 
Asshur  shall  not  save  us;  we  will  not  ride  upon  horses:  neither  will 
we  say  any  more  to  the  work  of  our  hands,  Ye  are  our  gods :  for  in 
thee  the  fatherless  findeth  mercy." 

God.  —  I  will  heal  their  backsliding,  I  will  love  them  freely:  for 
mine  anger  is  turned  away  from  him.  I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto 
Israel :  he  shall  blossom  as  the  lily,  and  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Leb- 
anon. His  branches  shall  spread,  and  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive 
tree,  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon.  They  that  dwell  under  his  shadow 
shall  return;  they  shall  revive  as  the  corn,  and  blossom  as  the  vine: 
the  scent  thereof  shall  be  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon.  Ephraim  shall 
say,  What  have  I  to  do  any  more  with  idols?  I  have  answered,  and 
will  regard  him:  I  am  like  a  green  fir  tree;  from  me  is  thy  fruit 
found.  , 

We  have  thus  seen  the  prophetic  Uterature  of  the  Bible  assum- 
ing very  various  forms.  Besides  the  simple  record  of  intercourse 
with  God  or  with  the  people,  the  prophet's  message  may  be  an 


352  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

elaborate  discourse  ;  the  discourse  may  have  a  symboHc  text,  and 
so  present  the  varieties  of  emblem,  vision,  and  parable ;  the 
prophecy  may  clothe  itself  in  lyric  poetry,  or  it  may  be  presented 
in  a  dramatic  scene.  There  still  remain  to  be  mentioned  two 
kinds  of  prophecy  of  such  importance  from  the  literary  standpoint 
that  they  must  be  discussed  in  separate  chapters. 


CHAPTER    XV 

FORMS    OF    PROPHETIC    LITERATURE  :     THE    DOOM    SONG 

Among  forms  of  Prophecy  there  is  one  which  has  a  distinctive- 
ness and  prominence  in  the  Bible,  and  from  the  Hterary  point  of 
view  so  special  an  interest,  that  it  seems  proper  in  ^j^^  j^^^^^  g^^^ 
this  work  to  treat  it  in  a  chapter  by  itself.  This  is  as  a  form  of 
the  Doom  Song :  a  prophetic  utterance  directed  ^''op^^^'^y 
against  some  particular  city,  nation,  or  country.  The  kingdoms 
of  Israel,  however  unique  their  position  in  the  history  of  mankind, 
yet  in  their  own  age  formed  part  of  a  network  of  states.  There 
were  neighbour  peoples,  like  the  Philistines  or  Syrians,  kindred 
races,  such  as  Moabites,  Edomites,  Ammonites,  the  maritime 
powers  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  others  :  all  stretching  like  a  chain 
between  the  two  world  empires  of  Egypt  on  the  south  and  Assyria 
on  the  northeast.  Deliverance  from  one  of  these  empires  formed 
the  starting-point  of  Israel's  history,  and  into  the  other  she  was 
destined  to  be  absorbed  ;  meanwhile  the  ceaseless  fluctuations  of 
power  and  of  mutual  relations  between  all  these  nations  and  em- 
pires imposed  a  continual  foreign  policy  on  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  The  prophets  exercised  influence  in  this  foreign 
policy,  as  well  as  in  domestic  questions.  And,  over  and  above 
questions  of  temporary  policy,  there  was  the  perpetual  function  of 
Israel  as  a  nation  to  uphold  the  worship  of  the  true  God  amidst 
nations  of  idolaters ;  and  the  constant  witnesses  to  this  were  the 
prophets.  One  product  of  such  prophetic  ministry  was  this 
denunciatory  discourse  or  Doom  Song. 

353 


354  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

There  is  a  remarkable  passage  in  Jeremiah  which  may  well 
serve  as  preface  to  a  discussion  of  the  whole  subject. 

XXV.  15  For  thus  saith  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel,  unto  me :  Take  the 
cup  of  the  wine  of  this  fury  at  my  hand,  and  cause  all  the  nations,  to 
whom  I  send  thee,  to  drink  it.  And  they  shall  drink,  and  reel  to  and 
fro,  and  be  mad,  because  of  the  sword  that  I  will  send  among  them. 
Then  took  I  the  cup  at  the  Lord's  hand,  and  made  all  the  nations 
to  drink,  unto  whom  the  LoRD  had  sent  me :  to  wit,  Jerusalem,  and 
the  cities  of  Judah,  and  the  kings  thereof,  and  the  princes  thereof,  to 
make  them  a  desolation,  an  astonishment,  an  hissing,  and  a  curse; 
as  it  is  this  day;  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt,  and  his  servants,  and  his 
princes,  and  all  his  people;  and  all  the  mingled  people,  and  all  the 
kings  of  the  land  of  Uz,  and  all  the  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Ashkelon,  and  Gaza,  and  Ekron,  and  the  remnant  of 
Ashdod;  Edom,  and  Moab,  and  the  children  of  Ammon;  and  all 
the  kings  of  Tyre,  and  all  the  kings  of  Sidon,  and  the  kings  of  the 
isle  which  is  beyond  the  sea;  Dedan,  and  Tema,  and  Buz,  and  all 
that  have  the  corners  of  their  hair  polled;  and  all  the  kings  of  Ara- 
bia, and  all  the  kings  of  the  mingled  people  that  dwell  in  the  wilder- 
ness; and  all  the  kings  of  Zimri,  and  all  the  kings  of  Elam,  and  all 
the  kings  of  the  Medes;  and  all  the  kings  of  the  north,  far  and  near, 
one  with  another;  and  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world,  which  are 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth :  and  the  king  of  Sheshach  shall  drink 
after  them.  And  thou  shalt  say  unto  them.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  the  God  of  Israel:  Drink  ye,  and  be  drunken,  and  spue,  and 
fall,  and  rise  no  more,  because  of  the  sword  which  I  will  send  among 
you.  And  it  shall  be,  if  they  refuse  to  take  the  cup  at  thine  hand 
to  drink,  then  shalt  thou  say  unto  them,  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts :  Ye  shall  surely  drink.  For,  lo,  I  begin  to  work  evil  at  the 
city  which  is  called  by  my  name,  and  should  ye  be  utterly  unpun- 
ished? Ye  shall  not  be  unpunished  :  for  I  will  call  for  a  sword  upon 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts.  Therefore 
prophesy  thou  against  them  all  these  words,  and  say  unto  them,  The 
Lord  shall  roar  from  on  high,  and  utter  his  voice  from  his  holy  habi- 
tation; he  shall  mightily  roar  against  his  fold;  he  shall  give  a  shout, 
as  they  that  tread  the  grapes,  against  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  A  noise  shall  come  even  to  the  end  of  the  earth;  for  the 
Lord  hath  a  controversy  with  the  nations,  he  will  plead  with  all 
flesh ;  as  for  the  wicked,  he  will  give  them  to  the  sword,  saith  the 
Lord. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  355 

The  Doom  Songs  then  are  the  pourings  out  of  "  the  cup  of  the 
Lord's  Fury  "  against  particular  kingdoms,  such  as  the  words  of  Jere- 
miah suggest.    Their  prototype  is  the  primitive  Curse  on  Canaan : 

Cursed  be  Canaan  :  Genesis 

A  servant  of  servants  shall  he  be  unto  his  brethren.         ^*'  ^^ 

They  are  indignant  denunciations  of  idolatry  and  vice  ;  prophetic 
pictures  of  doom  to  come  in  spite  of  all  appearances  to  the 
contrary ;  realistic  pictures  of  overthrow  and  desolation ;  wails  as 
over  the  dead,  soon  changing  to  taunts  from  victims  to  a  fallen 
oppressor.  They  have  been  compared  to  the  Satires  and  Philip- 
pics of  other  Hteratures  :  and  it  is  true  that  they  give  scope  to  the 
literary  impulses  which  in  other  cases  have  produced  these  forms. 
But  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  tone  between  the  Biblical  denun- 
ciation and  its  secular  counterparts.  I  would  rather  say  that  the 
Doom  Song  is  to  the  Satire  what  Tragedy  is  to  Comedy ;  the 
Doom  Song  is  to  the  Philippic  what  Poetry  is  to  Prose. 

Coming  to  particulars,  we  may  note  the  difference  between 
the  brief,  oracular,  almost  enigmatic  utterances  which  seem  to  be 
the  earlier  forms  of  Doom,  and  the  elaborate  invectives  of  later 
times,  upon  which  all  the  resources  of  literature  are  concentrated. 

Of  the  earlier  type  there  can  be  no  better  illustration  than  the 
series  of  three  '  Oracles '  which  make  the  twenty- 
first  chapter  oi  Isaiah,  and  which,  however  obscure   T^^e  earlier  or 

^  '  '  Oracular  Dooms 

their   historic   references    may  be,   seem  by  their 

internal  resemblances  to  constitute  a  unity.     Their  interest  lies, 

not  so  much  in  the  events  they  foreshadow,  as  in 
,  ,  .  ....  ,  ,       .      Isaiah  xxi 

the  way  they  give  poetic  reahsation  to  the  prophetic 

attitude.     They  are  bound  together  by  underlying  imagery  of  a 

prophet  keeping  vigil  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  holy  land, 

with  his  watchman  still  further  in  advance,  both  peering  through 

the  darkness  of  future  history  to  catch  the  first  signs  of  the  Lord's 

dealing   with   his   foes.     The   first  oracle  has  its  title  from  the 

"wilderness  of  the  sea,"  that  is,  the  region  of  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 

and  brings  out  the  fall  of  the  empire  that  is  the  eastern  boundary 


356  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

of  the  prophet's  world.  It  has  the  usual  mingling  of  prose  and 
lyric  verse  :  the  prose  puts  the  prophet's  position  of  vigil,  and  the 
agitation  which  his  vision  produces  in  his  own  heart,  while 
snatches  of  verse  convey  gleams  of  vision,  or  words  of  the  watch- 
man, or  even  the  call  of  the  Lord  to  the  destroying  foe. 


The  Oracle  of  the  Wilderness  of  the  Sea 

As  whirlwinds  in  the  South  sweep  through. 

It  Cometh  from  the  wilderness, 
From  a  terrible  land  ! 
A  grievous  vision  is  declared  unto  me;   the  treacherous  dealer  dealeth 
treacherously,  and  the  spoiler  spoileth. 
"  Go  up,  O  Elam; 

Besiege,  O  Media; 
All  the  sighing  thereof  will  I  make  to  cease." 
Therefore  are  my  loins  filled  with  anguish;  pangs  have  taken  hold 
upon  me,  as  the  pangs  of  a  woman  in  travail :  I  am  pained  so  that  I 
cannot  hear,  I  am  dismayed  so  that  I  cannot  see.  My  heart  panteth, 
horror  hath  affrighted  me :  the  twilight  that  I  desired  hath  been 
turned  into  trembling  unto  me. 

"They  prepare  the  table. 
They  spread  the  carpets. 
They  eat,  they  drink : 
Rise  up,  ye  princes,  anoint  the  shield." 
For  thus  hath  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  Go,  set  a  watchman;   let  him 
declare  what  he  seeth :   and  when  he  seeth  a  troop,  horsemen  in 
pairs,  a  troop  of  asses,  a  troop  of  camels,  he  shall  hearken  diligently 
with  much  heed.     And  he  cried  as  a  lion : 

0  Lord, 

1  stand  continually  upon  the  watch-tower  in  the  day-time, 

And  am  set  in  my  ward  whole  nights : 
And,  behold,  here  cometh  a  troop  of  men, 

Horsemen  in  pairs. 

And  He  answered  and  said, 

"  Babylon  is  fallen, 

Is  fallen;  [ground." 

And  all  the  graven  images  of  her  gods  are  broken  upon  the 

O  thou  my  threshing,  and  the  corn  of  my  floor :  that  which  I  have  heard 

from  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel,  have  I  declared  unto  you. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  357 

The  second  oracle  is  not  associated  with  any  incident,  but 
seems  entirely  devoted  to  bringing  out  the  prophetic  attitude  of 
vigil.  A  voice  out  of  the  lower  region  of  Mount  Seir  calls  to  the 
watchman  in  his  wilderness  station  for  tidings  :  the  sentinel,  as  if 
repeating  the  formula  of  the  watch,  replies  that  the  regular  suc- 
cession of  day  and  night  is  broken  by  no  tidings  as  yet,  the 
enquirer  must  ask  again. 


The  Oracle  of  Silence 

One  calleth  unto  me  out  of  Seir; 
Watchman,  what  of  the  night? 
Watchman,  what  of  the  night? 
The  watchman  said, 

The  morning  cometh, 

And  also  the  night : 
If  ye  will  enquire,  enquire  ye; 
Come  ye  again. 

The  third  oracle  sees  another  storm-cloud  about  to  break  from 
the  north ;  and  bids  nomad  peoples  get  ready  food  for  the  fugi- 
tives of  Kedar,  whom  they  will  find  before  the  night  just  beginning 
is  over. 


The  Oracle  at  Evening 

In  the  thickets  at  evening  shall  ye  lodge, 

O  ye  travelling  companies  of  Dedanites. 

Unto  him  that  is  thirsty  bring  ye  water; 

Ye  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Tema, 

Meet  the  fugitives  with  your  bread. 

For  they  fled  away  from  the  swords. 

From  the  drawn  sword,  and  from  the  bent  bow, 

And  from  the  grievousness  of  war. 
For  thus  hath  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  Within  a  year,  according  to 
the  years  of  an  hireling,  and  all  the  glory  of  Kedar  shall  fail :  and 
the  residue  of  the  number  of  the  archers,  the  mighty  men  of  the 


358  BIBLICAL   LITERA  TURE    OF  PROPHECY 

children  of  Kedar,  shall  be  few :  for  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel, 
hath  spoken  it.i 

But  the  larger  proportion  of  the  Doom   Songs  are  elaborate 

outpourings,  which   hover  on   the  borderland   between  rhetoric 

declamation  and  poetic  imagery.     The  destroying 

The  more  elabo-  .  .      c 

rate  Doom  Songs  enemy  appears  as  strangers  come  to  fan,  or  waters 
out  of  the  north,  or  smoke  out  of  the  north ;  the 
country  is  swept  with  the  besom  of  destruction,  it  is  scattered  to 
the  four  winds.  In  the  panic  fathers  look  not  back  to  their 
children  for  feebleness  of  hands,  fortresses  go  down  before  the 
invader  as  ripe  figs  are  shaken  from  a  tree.  Babylon  has  been  a 
golden  cup  in  the  Lord's  hand  to  make  the  nations  drunken  and 
mad  ;  and  when  the  work  is  done  Babylon  is  suddenly  fallen  and 
destroyed.  She  has  been  a  destroying  mountain,  destroying  all 
the  earth  :  but  the  Lord  will  stretch  his  hand  upon  her,  and  roll 
her  down  from  the  rocks,  and  make  her  a  burnt  mountain :  men 
shall  not  take  of  her  a  stone  for  a  corner,  but  she  shall  be  desolate 
forever.  Babylon  is  Jehovah's  'battle-axe,'  with  which  he  will 
break  in  pieces  the  nations  :  but  the  '  hammer  of  the  whole  earth' 
is  cut  asunder  and  broken.  "  Moab  hath  been  at  ease  from  his 
youth,  and  he  hath  settled  on  his  lees,  and  hath  not  been  emptied 
from  vessel  to  vessel,  neither  hath  he  gone  into  capti\ity :  there- 
fore his  taste  remaineth  in  him,  and  his  scent  is  not  changed." 
Therefore  shall  be  sent  to  him  those  that  pour  off,  and  they  shall 
empty  his  vessels,  and  break  the  bottles  in  pieces.  The  Assyrian 
was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon,  with  fair  branches  and  a  shadowing 
shroud ;  his  top  amid  the  clouds,  till  the  cedars  in  the  garden  of 
God  could  not  hide  him  ;  the  waters  nourished  him,  the  deep  made 
him  to  grow ;  the  fowls  of  heaven  made  their  nests  in  his  boughs, 
and  all  great  nations  dwelt  under  his  shadow.     But  he  is  delivered 

1  It  might  seem  at  first  sight  that  the  title  of  the  section  which  follows,  '  The 
Oracle  of  the  Valley  of  Vision,"  should  make  it  a  part  of  the  same  series.  But  com- 
parison of  verses  5,  7,  8  (of  xxii)  will  show  that  the  '  valley  of  vision '  is  to  be  asso- 
ciated, not  with  the  prophet's  place  of  observation,  but  with  the  details  of  the 
blockade.  The  enemy  had  reached  a  point  close  enough  to  see  into  the  city 
through  the  breaches  and  to  be  seen  by  the  cidzens  :  hence  the  panic. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  359 

into  the  hands  of  the  mighty,  the  terrible  have  cut  him  off  and  left 
him  ;  his  branches  are  fallen  over  mountains  and  valleys,  and  his 
broken  boughs  along  the  watercourses  ;  all  the  fowls  of  heaven  dwell 
upon  his  ruin.  When  Babylon  goes  down  hell  from  beneath  is 
moved  to  meet  him  ;  the  shades  of  the  kings  of  the  nations  rise  from 
their  thrones  to  gaze  at  the  mighty  oppressor  become  weak  like 
themselves.    The  glorious  seat  of  empire  turns  to  utter  desolation. 

It  shall  never  be  inhabited, 

Neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation : 

Neither  shall  the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there; 

Neither  shall  shepherds  iiiake  their  flocks  to  lie  down  there. 

But  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there; 

And  their  houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures; 
And  ostriches  shall  dwell  there, 
And  satyrs  shall  dance  there. 

And  wolves  shall  cry  in  their  castles, 

And  jackals  in  the  pleasant  palaces: 

And  her  time  is  near  to  come, 

And  her  days  shall  not  be  prolonged. 

Perhaps  the  most  wide-reaching  and  many-sided  of  the  Doom 
Songs  is  Ezekiel's  burden,  or  rather  succ^sion  of  burd«ns,  against 
the  maritime  metropolis  of  the  ancient  world,  — the   j^^^^^^  ^^  ^ 
city  of  Tyre.     God  is  against  Tyre,  and  the  nations  Ezekiei  xxvi- 
shall  overwhelm  her  like  the  waves  of  a  rising  sea  :   ^^^"^ 
they  shall  wash  down  walls  and  towers,  and  even  her  very  dust, 
until  Tyre  has  become  a  bare  rock,  a  place  for  the  spreading  of 
nets  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.     From  imagery  the  Song  changes  to 
picture  :    and  in  successive  sentences  we  see   Nebuchadrezzar's 
advance  :  the  daughter  fortresses  on  the  confines  are  destroyed, 
mounts  and  battering  engines  are  before  the  mother  city,  the  very 
dust  of  his  march  smothers  the  beautiful  site,  at  the  mere  sound 
of  his  horsemen  and  chariots  the  gates  are  shaken  down ;  horse- 
hoofs  deface  the  streets,  the  sword  slays,  the  obelisks  of  strength 
are  thrown  down,  riches  spoiled,  pleasant  houses  made  rubbish 


360  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

heaps :  T)Te  becomes  a  silent  and  bare  rock,  a  place  for  the 
spreading  of  nets.  Then  all  the  princes  of  the  sea  come  down 
from  their  thrones,  and  lay  aside  their  robes,  and  strip  off  their 
broidered  garments  :  they  clothe  themselves  with  tremblings,  as 
they  raise  the  wail  over  the  renowned  city,  won  from  the  sea,  and 
the  terror  of  all  that  haunt  it.  For  God  shall  bring  up  the  deep 
upon  her,  and  the  great  waters  shall  cover  her,  and  he  will  bring 
her  down  with  them  that  descend  into  the  pit,  and  will  make  her 
to  dwell  in  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth,  in  the  places  that  are 
desolate  of  old ;  though  she  be  sought  for,  yet  shall  she  never  be 
found  again.  Then  another  strain  of  denunciation  commences, 
and  with  prolonged  enumeration  brings  out  poetically  the  world- 
wide enterprise  of  the  wealthy  port.  Tyre  is  represented  in  the 
form  of  a  ship,  and  the  various  races  with  which  she  has  dealings 
make  their  contributions  to  its  perfection. 

Thou,  O  Tyre,  hast  said,  I  am  perfect  in  beaut)-.  Thy  borders  are 
in  the  heart  of  the  seas,  thy  builders  have  perfected  thy  beauty. 
They  have  made  all  thy  planks  of  fir  trees  from  Senir :  they  have 
taken  cedars  from  Lebanon  to  make  a  mast  for  thee.  Of  the  oaks 
of  Bashan  have  they  made  thine  oars;  they  have  made  thy  benches 
of  ivory  inlaid  in  boxwood,  from  the  isles  of  Kittim.  Of  fine  linen 
wiBi  broidered  work  from  Eg}-pt  was  thy  sail,  that  it  might  be  to 
thee  for  an  ensign;  blue  and  purple  from  the  isles  of  Elishah  was 
thine  awning.  The  inhabitants  of  Zidon  and  Arvad  were  thy  rowers : 
thy  wise  men,  O  Tyre,  were  in  thee,  they  were  thy  pilots.  The 
ancients  of  Gebal  and  the  wise  men  thereof  were  in  thee  thy  calkers : 
all  the  ships  of  the  sea  with  their  mariners  were  in  thee  to  occupy 
thy  merchandise.  Persia  and  Lud  and  Put  were  in  thine  army,  thy 
men  of  war:  they  hanged  the  shield  and  helmet  in  thee;  they  set 
forth  thy  comeliness.  The  men  of  Arvad  with  thine  army  were  upon 
thy  walls  round  about,  and  the  Gammadim  were  in  thy  towers :  they 
hanged  their  shields  upon  thy  walls  round  about;  they  have  per- 
fected thy  beauty. 

This  is  only  a  fragment  of  the  long-sustained  enumeration  :  for 
when  mention  is  made  of  the  merchants  who  traffic  with  this  Ship 
of  Tyre  all  nations  of  the  civilised  world  appear,  and  every  kind 


THE  DOOM  SONG  361 

of  merchandise  and  riches  is  detailed,  until  the  successive  sen- 
tences have  accumulated  a  conception  of  inexhaustible  wealth. 
Then  comes  the  shock  of  change.  The  Ship  that  makes  such  a 
thing  of  glory  in  the  heart  of  the  seas  suffers  wreck. 

Thy  rowers  have  brought  thee  into  great  waters :  the  east  wind 
hath  broken  thee  in  the  heart  of  the  seas.  Thy  riches,  and  thy 
wares,  thy  merchandise,  thy  mariners,  and  thy  pilots,  thy  calkers,  and 
the  occupiers  of  thy  merchandise,  and  all  thy  men  of  war,  that  are 
in  thee,  with  all  thy  company  which  is  in  the  midst  of  thee,  shall  fall 
into  the  heart  of  the  seas  in  the  day  of  thy  ruin.  At  the  sound  of 
the  cry  of  thy  pilots  the  waves  shall  shake. 

After  fresh  lamentations  of  the  sea-faring  world  over  their  chief, 
the  tempest  of  denunciation  glances  upon  the  prince  of  Tyre,  who 
says  "  he  is  a  god,  he  sits  in  the  seat  of  God  in  the  heart  of  the 
seas  "  :  but  he  is  a  man,  and  not  God,  in  the  hand  of  him  that 
woundeth  him  ;  and  he  shall  die  the  death  of  the  uncircumcised. 
Then  the  strain  of  denunciation  gathers  to  a  cUmax.  Tyre  sealeth 
up  the  sum,  full  of  wisdom  and  perfect  in  beauty.  Tyre  was  in 
Eden  the  garden  of  God ;  every  precious  stone  was  her  covering ; 
she  was  the  cherub  overshadowing  the  mercy  seat :  till  unright- 
eousness was  found  in  her.  Multitude  of  traffic  filled  her  with 
violence  ;  she  has  been  cast  out  as  profane  ;  fire  from  the  midst 
of  her  has  devoured  her ;  she  has  been  turned  to  ashes  in  the  sight 
of  all  beholders  ;  she  shall  exist  no  more. 

If  the  burden  of  Ezekiel  against  Tyre  be  a  typical  example  of 
this  department  of  literature,  we  may  take  from  the  same  prophet 
another  Doom   Song  which  is  unique.     The  idea 

underlying  it  is  the  same  thought  we  have  already   ^°°™  °*  Egypt 

Ezekiel  xxxii. 
cited  from  Isaiah,  —  that  of  the  kingdoms  among   17.32 

the  dead  receiving  the  newly  fallen  empire  in  the 

gloomy  underworld.     The  form  of  this  burden  is  a  Wail  or  Dirge. 

It  is  an  extreme  example  of  the  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose 

which  I  have  illustrated  in  so  many  branches  of  Hebrew  literature  : 

monotonous  prose  recitative  carries  on  the  thread  of  description, 

and  is  broken  by  strongly  rhythmic  lines,  that  leave  the  impression 


362  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

at  once  of  varying  and  of  recurring  with  the  regularity  of  a  refrain. 
I  cite  this  Song  in  full,  and  then  our  notice  of  the  literature  of 
Doom  will  have  been  carried  sufficiently  far. 


DOOM   OF   EGYPT 

Son  of  man,  wail  for  the  multitude  of  Egypt,  and  cast  them  down, 
even  her,  and  the  daughters  of  the  famous  nations, 

Unto  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth. 

With  them  that  go  down  into  the  pit. 
Whom  dost  thou  pass  in  beauty?  go  down,  and  be  thou  laid  with 
the  uncircumcised.     They  shall  fall  in  the  midst  of  them  that  are 
slain  by  tjie  sword :  she  is  delivered  to  the  sword :  draw  her  away 
and  all  her  multitudes. 

The  strong  among  the  mighty  shall  speak  to  him  out  of  the  midst  of 
hell  with  them  that  help  him : 

They  are  gone  down, 

They  lie  still. 

Even  the  uncircumcised. 

Slain  by  the  sword. 
Asshur  is  there  and  all  her  company;  his  graves  are  round  about  him : 

All  of  them  slain, 

Fallen  by  the  sword : 
Whose  graves  are  set  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  pit,  and  her  com- 
pany is  round  about  her  grave : 

All  of  them  slain. 

Fallen  by  the  sword. 

Which  caused  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living. 
There  is  Elam  and  all  her  multitude  round  about  her  grave : 

All  of  them  slain, 

Fallen  by  the  sword, 

Which  are  gone  down  uncircumcised 

Into  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth. 

Which  caused  their  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living, 
and   have   borne  their  shame  with  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 
They  have  set  her  a  bed  in  the  midst  of  the  slain  with  all  her  multi- 
tude;  her  graves  are  round  about  her; 

All  of  them  uncircumcised, 

Slain  by  the  sword; 


THE  DOOM  SONG  363 

for  their  terror  was  caused  in  the  land  of  the  living,  and  they  have 
borne  their  shame  with  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit :  he  is  put  in 
the  midst  of  them  that  be  slain.  There  is  Meshech,  Tubal,  and  all 
her  multitude;   her  graves  are  round  about  her: 

All  of  them  uncircumcised, 

Slain  by  the  sword; 

For  they  caused  their  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living. 
And   shall    they   not   lie    with    the    mighty  that    are    fallen   of  the 
uncircumcised, 

Which  are  gone  down  to  hell, 

With  their  weapons  of  war, 
and  have  laid  their  swords  under  their  heads,  and  their  iniquities  are 
upon  their  bones; 

For  they  were  the  terror  of  the  mighty 

In  the  land  of  the  living; 
but  thou  shalt  be  broken  in  the  midst  of  the  uncircumcised,  and  shalt 
lie  with  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword.     There  is  Edom,  her  kings 
and  all  her  princes,  which  for  all  their  might  are  laid 

With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword : 

They  shall  lie  with  the  uncircumcised. 

And  with  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 
There  be  the  princes  of  the  north,  all  of  them,  and  all  the  Zidonians, 

Which  are  gone  down  with  the  slain; 
for  all  the  terror  which  they  caused  by  their  might  they  are  ashamed; 

And  they  lie  uncircumcised 

With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword, 

And  bear  their  shame 

With  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 

Pharaoh  shall  see  them,  and  shall  be  comforted  over  all  his  multi- 
tude :   even  Pharaoh  and  all  his  army, 

Slain  by  the  sword  (saith  the  Lord  God), 
For  I  have  put  his  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living: 
And  he  shall  be  laid  in  the  midst  of  the  uncircumcised, 
With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword: 
even  Pharaoh  and  all  his  multitude,  saith  the  Lord  God. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE:  THE  RHAPSODY 

FaarBECS  isi  ooie  of  its  aspects  maj  be  descdbed  as  the  pM- 

loBophy  of  Imdnty  erected  mto  a,  diiaiHiiL    But  bodi  1^  Ieibe  of 

iSm  descdpttiaa  asmat  be  vndenbiod  in  a  fecial 

seawp-  Fb3aso|i8ay  ads  tluw^  its  msumaewt.  of 
rciecitaon  witexi  it  interprets  Mstoiy  inlo  ioflieffi^iaile 
likeoiy,  or  catcbes  the  drift  of  a  passmg  cnsis. 
Brit  tfae  pnjpbets  cany  their  scheme  of  faith  with  them  BMto  t3K 
erends  tiey  obsen^  It  is  iaaSk  m  tisat  wiiach  <^  Old  TtsOmeat. 
eicpresses  Is^  ^be  word  '  Jisdgniezii  * :  the  etensal  catBAwavasy  lie- 
tiyccD  Good  and  Evil,  between  Code's  people  and  idolatrous  natioiK,, 
heAmeeai  lie  '  remnant '  and  the  godless  mass  of  Israelites ;  az>d 
'dm  canies  with  it  the  coixelatire  idea  of  a  golden  age,  placed  in 
tihe  fiitnje  and  not  tlie  past,  when  the  contraversj  should  culminate 
m  a  ytesaaaac  waga.  of  peaoe.  To  harmonise  with  this  principle 
of  Jw^meiBt  ttiae  wosikiQg  of  evcMs  is  great  part  of  the  prophetic 
^t-e^inm  And,  as  <me  aiode  of  oooivieTiug  their  conceptions,  the 
prafsSaets  di^laj  tihe  iairidfnntfs  &eaaBseih-es  before  our  imaginatian 
wa^oBag  tovraids  their  goal  wMi  the  realistic  deamess  of  drama. 
Bnt  spaa  cxaaniatton  such  propiaelic  compositions  are  found  to 
go  br  beyooid  due  macSiineTT  of  dramalic  Steratore.  and  to  borrow 
fiooi  al  atiaer  Gteraij  departments  special  modes  of  treatment,  to 
be  faloftded  togetiiter  xnto  tiaat  zaoe       .  .  d  spiritual  of 

Etoaiy  Samas  wiiidi  is  laere  calQec 

I  desire  to  frplarn  this  in  detail :  but  first  it  maj  be  well  to  tal^e 
an  ilutntini.    Tbe  aimiiflrtf  <T:aTnplW'  of  the  ioa:m  of  prophecy 

364 


THE  RHAPSODY  365 

under  consideration  is  Habakkuk's  Rhapsody  of  the   Chaldeans. 

Its  exact  date  is  a  question  for  historical  experts ; 

for  literary  interpretation  it  is  sufificient  to  say  that   Rhapsody  of  the 

11  1  •     J      1  1       y^^i     1  1  Chaldeans 

it  belongs  to  the  period  when  the  Chaldean  power  Habakkuk  i-ii 
first  looms  as  a  terror  on  the  political  horizon. 
Under  such  terror  the  first  instinct  of  the  devout  would  be  to 
think  of  national  corruption  unpunished  at  home.  But  prophetic 
insight  must  go  further.  If  the  Chaldeans  —  a  cruel,  godless 
embodiment  of  might  without  right  —  were  to  be  God's  instrument 
of  judgment,  would  not  the  instrument  be  far  worse  than  that 
against  which  it  was  used  ?  It  is  this  perplexity  which  is  presented 
before  us  by  Habakkuk  in  dramatic  dialogue. 

The  Prophet.  —  O  Lord,  how  long  shall  I  cry,  and  thou  wilt  not 
hear?  I  cry  unto  thee  of  violence,  and  thou  wilt  not  save.  Why 
dost  thou  shew  me  iniquity,  and  cause  me  to  look  upon  perverseness? 
for  spoiling  and  violence  are  before  me :  and  there  is  strife,  and 
contention  riseth  up.  Therefore  the  law  is  slacked,  and  judgement 
doth  never  go  forth :  for  the  wicked  doth  compass  about  the  right- 
eous; therefore  judgement  goeth  forth  perverted. 

God.  —  Behold  ye  among  the  nations,  and  regard,  and  wonder 
marvellously :  for  I  work  a  work  in  your  days,  which  ye  will  not 
believe  though  it  be  told  you.  For,  lo,  I  raise  up  the  Chaldeans, 
that  bitter  and  hasty  nation;  which  march  through  the  breadth  of 
the  earth,  to  possess  dwelling  places  that  are  not  theirs.  They  are 
terrible  and  dreadful :  their  judgement  and  their  dignity  proceed 
from  themselves.  Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  leopards,  and 
are  more  fierce  than  the  evening  wolves;  and  their  horsemen  bear 
themselves  proudly:  yea,  their  horsemen  come  from  far;  they  fly  as 
an  eagle  that  hasteth  to  devour.  They  come  all  of  them  for  violence; 
their  faces  are  set  eagerly  as  the  east  wind ;  and  they  gather  captives 
as  the  sand.  Yea,  he  scoffeth  at  kings,  and  princes  are  a  derision 
unto  him:  he  derideth  every  stronghold;  for  he  heapeth  up  dust, 
and  taketh  it.  Then  shall  he  sweep  by  as  a  wind,  and  shall  pass 
over,  and  be  guilty;   even  he  whose  might  is  his  God. 

The  Prophet.  —  Art  not  thou  from  everlasting,  O  Lord  my  God, 
mine  Holy  One?  thou  diest  not.  O  Lord,  thou  hast  ordained  him 
for  judgement;  and  thou,  O  Rock,  hast  established  him  for  correc- 
tion.    Thou  that  art  of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  evil,  and  that 


366  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

canst  not  look  upon  perverseness,  wherefore  lookest  thou  upon  them 
that  deal  treacherously,  and  holdest  thy  peace  when  the  wicked 
swalloweth  up  the  man  that  is  more  righteous  than  he;  and  makest 
men  as  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  as  the  creeping  things,  that  have  no 
ruler  over  them?  He  taketh  up  all  of  them  with  the  angle,  he 
catcheth  them  in  his  net,  and  gathereth  them  in  his  drag :  therefore 
he  rejoiceth  and  is  glad.  Therefore  he  sacrificeth  unto  his  net,  and 
burneth  incense  unto  his  drag;  because  by  them  his  portion  is  fat, 
and  his  meat  plenteous.  Shall  he  therefore  empty  his  net,  and  not 
spare  to  slay  the  nations  continually? 

The  perplexity  has  been  fully  opened  :  the  point  has  been  reached 
where  a  solution  may  be  looked  for.     Additional  literary  force  is 
given  to  this  solution  by  delay;  there  is  a  pause,  and 
the  prophet  will  retire  to  his  watch-tower   to  wait  the 
answer  of  God.     The  answer,  when  it  comes,  is  ushered  in  by 
many  phrases  of  emphasis,  —  it  is  to  be  written,  to  be 
made  plain,  the  '  vision,'  though  it  seem  to  tarry,  is  really 
hasting  to  its  appointed  time.     What  then  is  the  Divine  solution 
to  the  prophet's  trouble?     As  so  often  happens  in  literature  of 
this  type,  the  central  point  of  the  whole  prophecy  is  conveyed 
under  the  form  of  imagery,  —  in  this  case  the  imagery  of  intoxica- 
tion.    The  haughty  irresistibility  of  the  Chaldean  is  no  more  than 
the   vinous  elation  that  goes   before   the   tottering  and 
falling ;    he  is  '  puffed   up,'  he  cannot  go  straight,  the 
treacherous  dealing  of  wine  has  given  him  the  haughtiness  that 
will  not  abide,  and  the  insatiable  appetite  of  hell.     Then  the  fall 
that  is  to  come  is  made  present  to  our  imaginations  by  a  sudden 
breaking  out  of  the  Taunt-Song  of  the  oppressed  nations  over 
their  fallen  tyrant.     In  lyric  sequence  four  woes  are  denounced, 
all  celebrating  the  same  theme  —  the  pride  and  fall  of  the  Chal- 
dean, but  celebrating  it  under  four  different  images.    The 
first  woe  puts  the  image  of  usury  :  Chaldean  aggrandise- 
ment has  been  a  mounting  up  of  borrowed  property,  and  there 
shall  rise  up  suddenly  those  who  will  exact  usury.    In  the 
second  woe  the  image  is  of  house-building  :   the  tyrant 
has  been  building  his  own  shame  into  the  house  he  thought  to 


THE  RHAPSODY  367 

make  so  high  above  all  evil ;  now  it  is  finished  the  stone  cries  out 

of  the  wall  and  the  beam  out  of  the  timber  answers  it.     In  the 

third  woe  the  image  changes  to  fortification  :  the  deep 

purposes  of  Jehovah  suffer  a  city  to  be  built  with  blood 

and  ramparted  with  iniquity,  just  that  its  burning  may  fill  earth 

and  sea  with  the  light  of  his  judgment.     The  fourth  woe 

rests  on  the  regular  prophetic  metaphor  —  the  cup  of 

the  Lord's  fijry,  handed  by  the  Chaldean  to  the  other  nations,  and 

drunk  by  the  Chaldean  in  his  turn.     Then  a  final  woe 

goes  to  the  root  of  the  whole  evil :    the  Chaldean  has 

been  led  astray  by  his  lying  idols,  all  covered  with  gold  and  silver, 

but  with  no  breath  in  them.     But  Jehovah  in  his  holy  temple  is 

the  true  teacher  of  the  nations  :  let  all  the  earth  sit  in  silence  at 

his  feet. 

Simple  as  this  prophecy  is,  it  has  exhibited  all  that  is  essential 
in  rhapsodic  literature ;  a  problem  of  current  history  has  been 
stated  in  the  form  of  dramatic  dialogue,  and  solved 

.  The  Rhapsody  as 

in   the    form  of  lyric   song.     This  department  of  an  enlargement 
prophecy  includes  some  of  the  most  intricate  and   °*  dramatic 

1  T  -1  1     1      T-v,  1  ■!->■,,    treatment 

obscure  literature  m  the  whole  Bible.  But  in  all 
cases  there  is  an  enlargement  of  dramatic  machinery  by  the  fusion 
with  it  of  other  kinds  of  literary  treatment.  A  similar  fusion  has 
taken  place  in  the  companion  art  of  music  ;  and  those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  Oratorio  and  the  Cantata  will  understand  how  a 
dramatic  action  may  be  maintained,  though  particular  movements 
in  it  are  in  lyric  or  meditative  form. 

What  exactly  is  the  mental  experience  of  a  spectator  watching 
a  drama?  He  has  a  movement  of  events  brought  home  to  him, 
not  by  any  narrative  or  explanation,  but  by  the  dialogue  of  the 
personages  taking  part  in  the  incidents,  assisted  by  changes  in  the 
scene  before  his  eyes.  The  reader  of  prophetic  drama  has  history 
presented  to  him  as  moving  in  the  direction  of  Divine  judgment. 
But  the  stage  on  which  such  movement  takes  place  is  nothing  less 
than  the  whole  universe.  Its  changing  scenery  must  be  conveyed 
to  him,  rarely  in  vision,  mainly  by  description.     It   is   not   the 


36S  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

description  that  belongs  to  Epic  poetry  and  deals  with  incidents 
in  the  past.  It  is  what  may  be  called  Scenic  Description,  such  as 
speaks  in  the  present  tense  with  the  vividness  of  one  who  beholds 
what  he  tells,  and  yet  the  personality  of  no  spectator  is  interposed 
between  the  reader  and  the  scene.  Or  it  is  Prophetic  Descrip- 
tion, that  uses  present  or  future  indifferently  :  for  what  God,  or 
his  prophetic  mouthpiece,  foretells  is  as  objectively  real  to  the 
imagination  as  if  it  were  visibly  present.  Similarly,  the  machinery 
of  dialogue  needs  enlargement  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
prophetic  drama.  Besides  actual  dialogue  we  have  the  Soliloquy 
or  Monologue,  whether  of  the  Divine  Being  or  others ;  in  par- 
ticular, alternating  monologues  —  say,  of  the  righteous  and  wicked 
from  opposite  regions  —  produce  a  Hterary  effect  closely  akin  to 
dialogue.  Another  element  of  dialogue  is  the  Divine  Address : 
the  omnipresence  of  Deity  extends  to  those  with  whom  he  speaks, 
and  his  call  to  them  makes  them  at  once  part  of  the  scene.  This 
consideration  is  more  important  than  might  at  first  be  thought ; 
we  shall  find  the  longest  scene  in  prophecy  to  have  no  speaker 
but  the  Divine  Being,  whose  alternate  addresses  to  the  nations 
and  to  Israel  keep  both  present  before  us  to  the  end.  And  in  a 
less  degree  the  same  effect  attaches  to  other  addresses  :  the  cries 
at  the  opening  of  Joel  to  various  classes  of  society  to  come  and 
weep  serve  to  bring  these  classes  into  the  scene  of  his  poem. 
Again,  the  prophet,  besides  being  the  mouthpiece  of  God,  remains 
a  spectator  of  his  own  drama,  and  his  comments,  spoken  to  earth 
or  heaven,  form  a  part  of  the  scenes.  '  Voices,'  again,  may  join 
in  the  dialogue,  yet  not  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  personality 
of  those  who  speak  continuously  present :  or  yet  more  imper- 
sonal '  Cries  '  may  serve  a  temporary  purpose  in  the  drama.  As 
an  element  of  dialogue  more  abstract  still  we  have  Lyric  Songs  or 
Responses  :  not  the  Choral  songs,  such  as  closed  Habakkuk's 
prophecy,  and  were  spoken  by  the  oppressed  nations,  but  imper- 
sonal lyrics,  like  those  used  in  Zephaniah  to  answer  or  second 
the  announcements  of  Deity,  or  to  interrupt  the  continuity  of 
movement  by  bursts  of  praise  or  lament. 


THE  RHAPSODY  369 

In  all  these  ways  the  machinery  of  drama  is  enlarged  and  spirit- 
ualised to  make  it  the  vehicle  of  prophecy.  It  borrows  lyric 
treatment  and  oratorical  discourse ;  it  does  the  work  of  philoso- 
phy ;  even  that  which  is  the  antithesis  of  drama,  description, 
appears  in  a  modified  form  to  serve  a  scenic  purpose.  And,  while 
the  constant  object  is  dramatic  realisation,  the  transitions  in  this 
prophetic  literature  from  dramatic  to  other  literary  forms  are  so 
frequent  and  rapid  that  they  seem,  not  so  much  to  be  blended, 
as  to  be  fused  together.  If  the  various  types  of  literary  treatment 
might  be  supposed  to  be  so  many  different  colours  of  thought, 
then  this  prophetic  drama  would  be  the  white  light  made  by  the 
merging  of  all  these  colours  in  one.  The  term  'drama,'  then, 
seems  to  me  altogether  inadequate  for  such  a  specialised  form 
of  literature.  A  more  appropriate  name  would  be  found  in  the 
'  Rhapsody,'  which  poetry  and  music  alike  reserve  as  something 
specially  exalted  and  free  from  Hmitations  of  form. 

The  Prophecy  of  Joel  makes  a  single  Rhapsody  of  the  Locust 

Plague.     The  idea  of  locusts,  singly  so  insignificant,  so  terribly 

destructive   in   the    mass,   lends    itself  readily    to 

poetic  treatment :  and  the  prophet,  starting  proba-  J°^^'^  Rhapsody 
^  .         -   f .    ,  .    ,     of  the  Locust 

bly  from  some  contemporary  visitation  of  this  kind,   piague 

idealises  it  into  mystic  and  awful  forces  of  destruc- 
tion, under  the  description  of  which  the  original  idea  can  be 
dimly  traced.  On  this  as  basis  he  works  up  a  conception  of 
advancing  judgment :  first  an  immediate  crisis,  and  then  the 
final  judgment  in  which  all  nations  are  involved.  And,  like  the 
leit-motif  of  a  musical  work,  "  the  great  and  terrible  Day  of 
the  Lord  "  runs  through  the  whole  as  a  refrain.  Those  who  are 
accustomed  to  literary  technicalities  will  be  struck  with  the  beau- 
tiful movement  of  this  work  :  the  seven  stages  into 

which  its  action  falls  advance  regularly  to  a  crisis,   "^  Movement 

.  J     a  continuous 

and  then,  as  with  the  figure  of  an  arch,  turn  round.   Advance 

the   later  corresponding  to  the  earlier,  until   the 

final  stage  is  seen  as  a  reversal  of  the  first.     The  accompanying 


370  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

figure  may  convey  this  to  the  eye.     [Commence  to  read  at  the 

bottom.] 

4.    Relief  and  Restoration 
ii.  18-27 

3.   At  the  last  moment  5.    Afterward :  Israel  spiritualised  — 

Repentance  the  Nations  summoned 

ii.  12-17  ^°  Judgment 

ii.  28-iii.  8 

2.    Judgment  visibly  Ad-  6.    Advance  to  the  Valley 

vancing:  CRISIS  of  Decision :  Crisis 

ii.  i-ii  iii.  9-16 

I.    The  Land  of  Israel  des-  7.   The    Holy    Mountain 

elate  and  mourning  and  eternal  Peace 

i  iii.  17-21 

The  prophecy  opens  with  distress  and  waiUng.  Calls  to  lament 
bring  before  us  old  men  witnessing  to  children  and  children's 
1  The  Land  of  children  of  devastation  such  as  their  fathers  never 
Israel  desolate  knew ;  drinkers  of  wine  awaking  from  their  stupor 
and  mourning  .^  j^^^^j  ^^^  ^^^  desolating,  strong-toothed  foe  that 
has  wasted  the  vine  and  blanched  the  fig  tree  \  husbandmen  howl- 
ing under  the  shame  and  languishing  that  sits  upon  the  crops  and 
the  trees  of  the  field,  and  upon  the  helpless  sons  of  men ;  the 
ministers  of  the  altar  clothing  themselves  with  sackcloth  ^s  the 
meal-offering  and  drink-offering  fails  from  the  house  of  God.  The 
different  groups  of  mourners  draw  together  into  a  solemn  assembly 
of  the  whole  land,  crying  with  one  voice,  "  Alas  for  the  day  of  the 
Lord  at  hand  !  "  and  chaunting  of  seeds  shrivelled  under  the  clods, 
garners  broken  down,  corn  bowed  with  shame,  cattle  perplexed 
and  flocks  panting  beside  the  dry  watercourses  and  burnt  pastures. 

But  there  is  no  relief :  the  action  intensifies.  A  trumpet  blast 
of  alarm  from  the  mountains  darts  into  every  trembling  heart  the 
a  Judgment  consciousness  that  the  Day  of  the  Lord  has  come 
visibly  advanc-  nigh  !  The  day  seems  to  have  broken  with  clouds 
ing:  Crisis  ^^^  thick  darkness  for  the  colours  of  its  dawn ; 

and  they  know  that  the  destroying  foe  will  be  great  and  strong, 


THE  RHAPSODY  371 

such  as  has  never  been  known  before,  neither  shall  there  be  any 
like  them.  The  advancing  doom  can  just  be  discerned  by  the 
destruction  it  works  :  fires  spreading  from  it  in  all  directions  :  as 
it  were  the  garden  of  Eden  before  it,  and  behind  it  a  desolate 
wilderness.  Straining  eye  and  ear  can  dimly  make  out  now  the 
appearance  of  horses,  now  rattlings  like  chariots  crossing  the  moun- 
tain ridges,  now  cracklings  as  of  fire  in  stubble,  now  the  array  as 
of  an  ordered  army.  A  nearer  vision  reveals  pale  anguish  on  the 
one  side,  on  the  other  mighty  warriors  and  an  irresistible  march  ; 
there  is  mystery  in  the  way  no  ranks  are  broken  with  the  inequali- 
ties of  the  ground,  none  swerves  for  a  moment  out  of  his  place ; 
the  encountering  weapons  actually  meet  them,  but  the  onward 
course  has  not  stopped.  Now  the  city  is  reached  with  a  bound, 
is  filled ;  the  earth  begins  to  quake,  the  heavens  are  all  dark  :  — 
and  the  long-expected  Voice  of  Jehovah  brings  the  certainty  that 
this  is  the  Day  of  the  Lord,  a  great  and  terrible  day ;  who  can 
abide  it? 

Then  a  surprise  :  for  the  Voice  of  Jehovah  before  his  army 
speaks  of  a  time  yet  for  turning  to  the  Lord,  with  weeping  and 
fasting,  with  rending  of  the  heart  and  not  the  gar-  ^^  ^j^g  j^g^. 
ment,  to  a  God  who  is  gracious  and  full  of  compas-  moment  Repent- 
sion,  slow  to  anger,  and  plenteous  in  mercy,  one 
who  repenteth  him  of  the  evil.  And  a  response  begins  to  stir 
among  the  doomed  p'eople  :  "  Who  knoweth  whether  he  will  not 
turn  and  repent,  and  leave  a  blessing  behind  him?"  And  once 
more,  with  sound  of  trumpet,  there  is  a  solemn  assembly  :  all  are 
gathered  together,  from  the  elder  to  the  child  at  the  breast,  the 
bridegroom  out  of  his  chamber  and  the  bride  out  of  her  closet : 
weeping  priests  and  ministers  of  the  altar  leading  the  cry  of 
"Spare  thy  people,  O  Lord." 

The  turning-point  of  the  prophecy  has  been  reached  :  "  Then 
was  the  Lord  jealous  for  his  land,  and  had  pity  on  his  people." 
In  the  words  of  Him  with  whom  future  and  present  4.  Relief  and 
are  the  same  we  have  pictured  a  relief  from  the   Restoration 
impending  judgment:    the  northern  army  passing  on  to  its  own 


372  SIBUCAL  UTERATVRE   OF  PROPHECY 

destroctiaD  m  a  desert  between  the  seas,  the  land  avakening  to 
jaj  3&CX  fear,  as  pastures  spiii^  oat  oi  wilderness  and  the  trees 
^ain  jidd  tfaeir  strei^^di.  Rdief  grows  to  restoration :  die  former 
and  latter  tain  comes  down  each  in  its  season,  floors  and  &ts 
o^qflow  til  the  loss  erf  locust  and  caterpillar  has  been  repaired. 
Flenlj  and  peace  abomd,  with  fxaise  to  the  Lord  for  his  vmdrons 
<|palingg^  awid  rtmRAe^nt^  that  Israd  sfaall  be  ashamed  no  m<»e. 

Bmt  ™s*»*»«^  of  this  being  an  end,  the  actiMi  of  die  rhapsody 
coDtianes  to  advance.  We  have  presented  before  as  an  '  after- 
ward': in  which  dteie  shall  be  a  ponrir^  oat  of 
die  spirit  upon  the  sons  and  daughters  ci  Israel, 
until  old  and  jaaagf  serrant  and  handmaid,  are  all 
afike  endowed  with  pcopbecr  and  visioa.  But  for  the  naticxis, 
darkened  son  and  Uood-starned  moon,  with  pDars  of  smoke,  with 
fire  and  blood,  gire  warmng  in  the  hearens  of  another  great  and 
teirible  Daj  of  die  Loid :  a  daj  of  pleadiiig  with  the  natims,  in 
the  TaOef"  called  after  the  name  of  judgment,  kx 
the  wTMigs  tfaer  lia¥e  done  to  the  captives  of  the 
L(xd*s  pec^ile.  And,  at  the  mention  <rf  firing 
beii^  bartered  and  sold  for  goods.  Divine  desczipticm  bursts  into 
Divine  rrmoostrance  with  the  men  erf  Tyre  and  Sdcm  and  Philistia, 
for  dieir  piBage  of  the  hofy  tlm^s,  and  their  czneltT  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Jndah  and  Jousakm.  And  what  recompense  have  tfaej 
to  make  to  the  adversary,  wbo  shall  swiftly  retom  their  recom- 
pense i^on  their  own  head? 

The   action  intensififs:    like  the  former  judg- 
on  Israd  this  final  doom  of  the   nations 
qmckens  its  advance,  and  already  the  cries  of  the 
oomiiig  contest  are  heard. 

G*d.  —  IHuiImm  ye  itis  tmamf  Ac  jatiows;  prepare  war:  sdr  sp 
&e  mi^tf  wtMi  let  aB  Ae  ^cb  of  var  dcav  Dear,  let  tbea  cone 
■p.  Beat  jcmt  iihwwluies  nto  s«ords  aad  jcmt  pnom^ifaoolcs  ioto 
speaa-.  let  Ae  weak  sqr,  I  aat  rtroag 

ItrmtL — Haste  jc,  aad  ror,  al  j^  vaAms  itMnd  aboat,  aad 
giAer  fvaodpcs  topAai  dAber  caase  tibf  wi^ttf  oaes  to  tnmt 
d0n,OLiOU». 


THE   RHAPSODY  373 

Gmd.  —  Let  me  s^ioDS  bestk  tbemseires,  xad  coirae  up  to  liie 
TaDej  of  Jefaosfaapfast :  for  tibexe  will  I  ^  to  jmdge  all  the  nations 
loond  abo^L 

G*d  {t»  Ae  Celistial  Hests) .  —  Pc^  re  m  the  ackle,  kx  the  Barrest 
is  i^K :  cone,  tread  ve ;  for  tlie  wioepresB  is  fkl,  tlue  &ts  ovaflow; 
far  their  wirtfthwss  is  greaC 

The  scene  is  before  us  of  imltitDdes  after  mnhitiM^  in  the 
valley  of  decisioa :  the  Day  of  the  L»d  is  near,  and  tihis  is  die 
place  of  the  ccnttest.  The  awf  jI  crisis  is  Teikd  from  ns :  son  and 
moon  are  dark,  and  the  stars  withdraw  their  shJim^  Bat  ham 
Jerusalem  and  Mount  Son  Jehovah  roars,  and  utters  a  rotce  onder 
which  the  heavens  and  earth  rock  to  and  fro,  aD  sare  the  stioi^ 
hold  in  which  the  Lord's  people  are  held  in  safe  refri^e.  Th-e 
darkness  clears  away  to  reveal  a  final  scene  of  Je- 
hovah comforting  his  people  from  his  holy  dweSing- 
place  in  Zion.  The  mountains  dic^  down  sweet 
wine,  and  the  iulls  flow  with  milk,  and  aH  the  brooks  are  ftifl  of 
waters,  while  fountains  from  the  house  of  the  Locd  canj  fortS^  to 
the  valleys  around.  Over  the  ruins  of  guilty  Egypt  and  Edom 
Judah  towers,  an  abiding  habitation  ;  and  ite  people  are  washed  with 
innocence  meet  for  the  people  of  the  Locd  that  dwdkth  in  Zion. 

In  this  rhapsody  of  Joel  the  moveineHt  is  a  continaoos  adraace, 
and  its  seven  parts  are  seven  successive  stages  Kke  Acts  of  a  dnuna. 

But  I  have  several  times  had  to  remaik  upon  an-  •wpp----- 

other  type  of  movement  to  which  Hebrew  fiteratnre  MBresEcr-.  ::i 

shows  attraction, — the  paxinhnn  movement,  which  ■'^^"^^ 

alternates  to  and  fro  between  two  topics  «r  scenes.     This  penii- 

him  movement  is  specially  characteristic  of  Prophecy.     It  w:"  r^ 

iUustrated  in  the  next  example  I  Ining  forward,  the  Rkar.-zy    - 

JuJ:nHtnt  and  Sahraticn,  which  oorefs  foar  chap- 

ters  of  Isaiah.     The  seven  sectioos  into  which  I  j  -^      tjjj 

have  divided  this  compositioo  do  not  make  a  soc- 

cession  in  time.     It  is  the  fourth  or  middle  sectioD 

that  stands  out  as  a  climax,  presenting  the  Mountain  of  the  Sared 


374  BIBLICAL   LITER  AT  URE    OF  PROniECY 

towering  above  a  prostrate  world  :  on  either  side  of  this  the  other 
sections  are  varying  pictures  of  the  same  judgment.  The  real 
movement  of  this  rhapsody  is  the  pendulum  movement  of  alterna- 
tion :  —  an  alternation  between  successive  pictures  of  Doom  and 
Salvation.  From  the  prominence  of  this  alternation,  and  also 
because  of  the  rapidity  and  obscurity  of  the  transitions  in  this 
composition,  I  have  thought  it  desirable  to  print  it  in  full,  with 
proper  arrangement  of  parts.  The  sections  of  Judgment  are  dis- 
tinguished by  Roman,  those  of  Salvation  by  Italic  type.  I  quote 
the  Revised  Version  (text  or  margin)  exactly,  except  that  for  the 
formulae  commencing  speeches  (such  as,  "In  that  day  shall  be 
said,"  etc.)  I  substitute  the  names  of  the  speakers  at  the  head  of 
the  speeches.  Paragraphs  without  such  headings  are  scenic  or 
prophetic  descriptions. 

ISAIAH'S 
RHAPSODY   OF  JUDGMENT  AND   SALVATION 

Prelude.  —  Proclamation 

Behold,  the  Lord  maketh  the  earth  empty,  and  maketh  it  waste, 
and  turneth  it  upside  down,  and  scattereth  abroad  the  inhabitants 
thereof.  And  it  shall  be,  as  with  the  people,  so  with  the  priest;  as 
with  the  servant,  so  with  his  master;  as  with  the  maid,  so  with  her 
mistress;  as  with  the  buyer,  so  with  the  seller;  as  with  the  lender, 
so  with  the  borrower;  as  with  the  taker  of  usury,  so  with  the  giver 
of  usury  to  him.  The  earth  shall  be  utterly  emptied,  and  utterly 
spoiled :  for  the  Lord  hath  spoken  the  word. 


The  earth  mourneth  and  fadeth  away,  the  world  languisheth  and 
fadeth  away,  the  lofty  people  of  the  earth  do  languish.  The  earth 
also  is  polluted  under  the  inhabitants  thereof;  because  they  have 
transgressed  the  laws,  changed  the  ordinance,  broken  the  everlasting 
covenant.  Therefore  hath  the  curse  devoured  the  earth,  and  they 
that  dwell  therein  are  found  guilty:   therefore  the  inhabitants  of  the 


THE  RHAPSODY  375 

earth  are  burned,  and  few  men  left.  The  new  wine  mourneth,  the 
vine  languisheth,  all  the  merryhearted  do  sigh.  The  mirth  of  tab- 
rets  ceaseth,  the  noise  of  them  that  rejoice  endeth,  the  joy  of  the 
harp  ceaseth.  They  shall  not  drink  wine  with  a  song;  strong  drink 
shall  be  bitter  to  them  that  drink  it.  The  city  of  confusion  is  broken 
down :  every  house  is  shut  up,  that  no  man  may  come  in.  There  is 
a  crying  in  the  streets  because  of  the  wine;  all  joy  is  darkened,  the 
mirth  of  the  land  is  gone.  In  the  city  is  left  desolation,  and  the  gate 
is  smitten  with  destruction. 


For  thus  shall  it  be  in  the  7nidst  of  the  earth  among  the  peoples,  as 
the  shaking  of  an  olive  tree,  as  the  grape  gleanings  when  the  vintage 
is  done.      I'hese  shall  lift  up  their  voice,  they  shall  shout. 

VOICES  FROM   THE    WEST 
For  the  Majesty  of  the  LORD  1 

VOICES  FROM  THE  EAST 
Wherefore  glorify  ye  the  LORD  in  the  east! 

VOICES  FROM   THE    WEST 

Even   the   name  of  the  LORD,  the   God  of  Lsrael,  in  the  isles 
of  the  sea  ! 

Voices  of  the  Doomed 

From  the  uttermost  part  of  the  earth  have  we  heard  songs,  glory 
tc  the  righteous.  But  I  said,  I  pine  away,  I  pine  away,  woe  is  me ! 
the  treacherous  dealers  have  dealt  treacherously;  yea,  the  treacher- 
ous dealers  have  dealt  very  treacherously. 

Voice  of  Prophecy 

Fear,  and  the  pit,  and  the  snare  are  upon  thee,  O  inhabitant  of 
earth.  And,  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  he  who  fleeth  from  the  noise 
of  the  fear  shall  fall  into  the  pit;  and  he  that  cometh  up  out  of  the 
midst  of  the  pit  shall  be  taken  in  the  snare. 


376  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 


For  the  windows  on  high  are  opened,  and  the  foundations  of  the 
earth  do  shake.  The  earth  is  utterly  broken,  the  earth  is  clean  dis- 
solved, the  earth  is  moved  exceedingly.  The  earth  shall  stagger  like 
a  drunken  man,  and  shall  be  moved  to  and  fro  like  a  hut;  and  the 
transgression  thereof  shall  be  heavy  upon  it,  and  it  shall  fall,  and  not 
rise  again.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  Lord  shall 
punish  the  host  of  the  high  ones  on  high,  and  the  kings  of  the  earth 
upon  the  earth.  And  they  shall  be  gathered  together,  as  prisoners  are 
gathered  in  the  pit,  and  shall  be  shut  up  in  the  prison,  and  after  many 
days  shall  they  be  visited.  Then  the  moon  shall  be  confounded,  and 
the  sun  ashamed. 


For  the  LORD  of  hosts  shall  reign  in  Mount  Zion,  and  in  yertaa- 
lem,  and  before  his  elders  shall  be  glory. 

SONG   OF  THE  ELDERS 

O  Lord,  thou  art  my  God ;  I  will  exalt  thee  ; 

I  will  praise  thy  name  ; 
For  thou  hast  done  wonderful  things, 

Even  counsels  of  old,  in  faithfulness  a  fid  truth. 

For  thou  hast  made  of  a  city  an  heap ; 

Of  a  defenced  city  a  ruin  : 

A  palace  of  strangers  to  be  no  city  ; 

It  shall  never  be  built. 

Therefore  shall  the  strong  people  glorify  thee. 

The  city  ofthe  terrible  nations  shall  fear  thee. 

For  thou  hast  bee7t  a  strong  hold  to  the  poor, 
A  strong  hold  to  the  needy  in  his  distress, 
A  refuge  from  the  storm, 
A  shado7v  from  the  heat, 
When  the  blast  ofthe  terrible  ones 
Is  as  a  storm  against  the  wall. 

As  the  heat  in  a  dry  place 
Shalt  thou  bring  doiun  the  noise  of  strangers  ; 

As  the  heat  by  the  shadow  of  a  cloud. 
The  song  of  the  terrible  ones  shall  be  broui^lit  loiv. 


THE  RHAPSODY  377 

And  in  this  mountain  shall  the  LORD  of  hosts  make  unto  all  peo- 
ples a  feast  of  fat  things,  a  feast  of  luittes  on  the  lees,  of  fat  things  full 
of  marrow,  of  wines  on  the  lees  well  refined.  Arid  he  will  destroy  in 
this  mountain  the  face  of  the  covering  that  is  cast  over  all  peoples,  and 
the  veil  that  is  spread  over  all  nations.  He  hath  swallowed  up  death 
for  ever  ;  and  the  Lord  GOD  will  wipe  aivay  tears  from  off  all  faces  ; 
and  the  reproach  of  his  people  shall  he  take  away  from  off  all  the 
earth :  for  the  LORD  hath  spoken  it. 

SONG  IN   THAT  DAY 

Lo,  this  is  our  God ; 

We  have  waited  for  him. 
And  he  will  save  us  .• 
This  is  the  LORD  ; 

We  have  waited  for  him,  we  will  be  glad 
And  rejoice  in  his  salvation. 

For  in  this  mountain  shall  the  hand  of  the  Lord  rest,  and  Moab 
shall  be  trodden  down  in  his  place,  even  as  straw  is  trodden  down  in 
the  water  of  the  dunghill.  And  he  shall  spread  forth  his  hands  in 
the  midst  thereof,  as  he  that  swimmeth  spreadeth  forth  his  hands  to 
swim :  and  he  shall  lay  low  his  pride  together  with  the  craft  of  his 
hands.  And  the  fortress  of  the  high  fort  of  thy  walls  hath  he  brought 
down,  laid  low,  and  brought  to  the  ground,  even  to  the  dust. 

SONG   IN  THE  LAND   OF  JUDAH 

We  have  a  strong  city  ; 

Salvation  will  he  appoint  for  walls  and  bulwarks. 
Open  ye  the  gates. 

That  the  righteous  nation  which  keepeth  truth  may  enter  in. 
Thou  wilt  keep  him  in  perfect  peace. 

Whose  mittd  is  stayed  on  thee,  because  he  trusteth  in  thee. 
Trust  ye  in  the  LORD  for  ever  : 

For  in  the  LORD  JEHOVAH  is  ati  everlastitig  rock. 

For  he  hath  brought  down  them  that  dwell  on  high,  the  lofty  city  : 

He  layeth  it  low,  he  layeth  it  low,  even  to  the  gi-ottnd  ; 

He  bringeth  it  even  to  the  dust. 

The  foot  shall  tread  it  down  ; 

Even  the  feet  of  the  poor, 

And  the  steps  of  the  needy. 


378  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

The  Teay  of  ik<  just  is  uprightness  : 
Thcu  thai  art  upright  dost  direct  ike  path  of  Ae  just. 
Yea,  in  the  way  of  thy  judgements,  O  LORD, 
Have  we  -waited for  thee; 
To  tfy  ttawu  and  to  thy  memarial 
Is  the  desire  of  our  souL 

With  my  soul  have  I  desired  thee  in  the  n^it,' 
Yea,  wfiih  my  spirit  Tpithin  me  will  I  seek  thee  earfy  .- 
For  mhen  tify  judgements  are  in  the  earth. 
The  inhabitants  of  ike  world  learn  righteousness. 
Letfitaour  be  Aeatedto  the  wicied. 
Yet  will  he  not  learn  righteousness; 
In  ike  land  of  uprightness  will  he  deal  wrongfulfy. 
And  will  not  behold  ike  majesty  of  the  LORD. 


5 
Prophetic  Spectator 

Lord,  thy  hand  is  lifted  up,  yet  they  see  not;  but  they  shaD  see 
thy  zeal  for  the  people,  and  be  ashamed :  yea,  fare  shall  deTour  thine 
adrersaries. 

VOICES  OF  THE  SA  "EP 

Lord,  thou  wilt  ordain  peate  for  us :  for  thou  kast  also  urcught 
all  our  toorks  for  us.  O  LORD  cur  God,  ether  M-rJs  usiJe  ihte  have 
had  domimiam  over  us;  but  by  thee  only  will  we  maie  mention  of 
Ay  name. 

PKOPHEnc  Spectator 

The  dead  live  not,  the  deceased  rise  not:  therefore  hast  then 
visited  and  destroyed  them,  and  made  aU  their  memory  to  perish. 

VOICES  OF  THE  SA  VED 

Thou  ha  si  increased  the  nation,  O  LORD,  thou  hast  increased  Ar 
nation;  thou  art  glorified :  thou  kast  enlarged  all  the  herders  of  ike 
land. 

Prophetic  Spectator 

LoM>,  in  trouble  hare  they  visited  thee,  they  poured  out  a  prayer 
when  thy  chastening  was  upon  them. 


THE  RHAPSODY  379 

Voices  of  the  Doomed 

Like  as  a  woman  with  child,  that  draweth  near  the  time  of  her 
delivery,  is  in  pain  and  crieth  out  in  her  pangs;  so  have  we  been 
before  thee,  O  Lord.  We  have  been  with  child,  we  have  been  in 
pain,  we  have  as  it  were  brought  forth  wind;  we  have  not  wrought 
any  deliverance  in  the  earth;  neither  have  inhabitants  of  the  world 
been  born. 

GOD  {TO  THE  SA  VED) 

Thy  dead  shall  live :  my  dead  bodies  shall  arise.  Awake  and 
sing,  ye  thai  dwell  in  the  dust :  for  thy  dew  is  as  the  dew  of  herbs, 
and  the  earth  shall  cast  forth  the  dead.  Come.,  my  people,  enter  thou 
into  thy  chambers,  and  shut  thy  doors  about  thee  :  hide  thyself  for  a 
little  momejtt,  until  the  indigjiation  be  overpast.  For,  behold,  the 
Lord  comcth  forth  out  of  his  place  to  punish  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  for  their  ittiquity :  the  earth  also  shall  disclose  her  blood,  and 
shall  no  more  cover  her  slain. 


Voice  of  Prophecy 

In  that  day  the  Lord  with  his  sore  and  great  and  strong  sword 
shall  punish  leviathan  the  swift  serpent,  and  leviathan  the  crooked 
serpent;   and  he  shall  slay  the  dragon  that  is  in  the  sea. 

SONG  IN  THA  T  DAY 

A  Vineyard  of  wine,  (^singyeofit,) 

I  the  Lord  do  keep  it ;  I  will  water  it  every  moment  : 

Lest  any  hurt  it,  I  will  ivater  it  night  and  day. 
Fury  is  tiot  in  me  : 

PVould  that  the  briers  atid  thorns  were  against  me  in  battle, 

/  zvotild  march  upon  them,  /  would  burn  them  together. 
Or  else  let  him  take  hold  of  i7iy  strength. 

That  he  may  make  peace  with  me  : 

Yea,  let  him  make  peace  tvith  me. 
Ln  days  to  come  shall  Jacob  take  root  ; 

Israel  shall  blossom  and  bud : 

And  they  shall  fill  the  face  of  the  world  with  fruit. 


3S0  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

PROPHETIC  SPECTATOR 

Hath  he  smitten  him  as  he  smote  them  that  smote  him  ?  or  is  he 
slain  according  to  the  slaughter  of  them  that  were  slain  by  him  / 
In  measure,  when  thou  sendest  her  aioay,  thou  dost  contend  with  her  ; 
he  hath  removed  her  with  his  rough  blast  iii  the  day  of  the  east  wind. 
Therefore  by  this  shall  the  iniquity  of  Jacob  be  purged,  and  this  is  all 
the  fruit  to  take  away  his  sin  ;  7vhen  he  maketh  all  the  stones  of  the 
altar  as  chalkstones  that  are  beaten  in  sunder,  so  that  the  Asherim 
and  the  sun-images  shall  rise  no  more. 


For  the  defenced  city  is  solitary,  an  habitation  deserted  and  for- 
saken, like  the  wilderness :  there  shall  the  calf  feed,  and  there  shall 
he  lie  down,  and  consume  the  branches  thereof.  When  the  boughs 
thereof  are  withered,  they  shall  be  broken  off;  the  women  shall  come 
and  set  them  on  fire:  for  it  is  a  people  of  no  understanding;  there- 
*  fore  he  that  made  them  will  not  have  compassion  upon  them,  and  he 

that  formed  them  will  show  them  no  favour. 

VOICE   OF  PROPHECY 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  LORD  shall  beat  out 
his  corn.,  froju  the  flood  of  the  River  unto  the  brook  of  Egypt,  and  ye 
shall  be  gathered,  one  by  one,  O  ye  children  of  Israel. 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  a  great  trumpet  shall  be 
blo7un  ;  and  they  shall  come  which  were  ready  to  perish  in  the  land 
of  Assyria,  and  they  that  xvere  outcasts  in  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and 
they  shall  worship  the  Lord  in  the  Holy  Mountain  at  Jerusaletn. 

Such  is  the  Prophetic  Rhapsody  in  its  full  development.     Its 

effect  is  that  of  a  World  Drama  ;  to  attain  this  effect  all  literary 

forms  concur  in  one,  and  even  description  has  a  subordinate  place 

in  representation.     As  the  Rhapsody  is  a  form  of  literature  special 

to    Hebrew   Prophecy,   it   may   be    interesting  to 

Origin  of  the  Pro-  •        ■    ^      -^  ■    ■  a-  l-      l.    \-^  r«  

phetic  Rhapsody     enquire  mto  its  origm  as  a  distmct  literary  form. 

On  the  one  side  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  extension 

of  Drama.    In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  noted  prophecies  which 

were  equivalent  to  brief  dramatic  dialogues,  presenting  the  Divine 


THE  RHAPSODY  381 

yearning  and  the  repentance  of  the  rebellious  people.  Such 
dialogues  were,  however,  abstract  and  general,  with  no  note  of 
particular  time  or  place.  The  Hebrew  people  have  strong  dramatic 
feelings,  but  no  theatre  in  which  to  give  them  vent ;  accordingly, 
when  dialogue  becomes  determined  by  indications  of  time  and 
place,  such  as  in  other  literatures  would  be  transferred  to  a  theatric 
scene,  these  in  Hebrew  literature  can  be  conveyed  only  by  descrip- 
tion. The  addition  of  this  scenic  description  to  dialogue  converts 
drama  into  rhapsody. 

An  illustration  of  a  composition  differing  from  dramatic  dialogue 
by  no  more  than  this  addition  of  description  is  afforded  by  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  compositions  of  Jeremiah,  that  on  the 
Drought.  Its  speakers  are  God,  the  Prophet,  and  ^  Repentant 
Israel.^  Its  dramatic  action  consists  in  the  gradual  moving  of  God 
from  judgment  to  mercy ;  and  dramatic  effect  is  carried  to  the 
extent  of  representing  Jehovah  as  a  justly  incensed  God,  who  for 
a  long  time  will  not  so  much  as  look  at  the  sinful  nation,  but 
addresses  them  only  through  the  Prophet :  at  last  he  speaks  his 
reproofs,  and  finally  his  mercy,  to  his  people  directly.  To  all  this 
dialogue  is  prefixed  a  prelude  picturing,  in  lyric  description,  the 
drought  which  is  the  scene  and  occasion  of  the  whole. 

1  It  is  usually  interpreted  as  a  Dialogue  of  Intercession,  with  no  speakers  except 
God  and  the  Prophet.  No  explanation  of  it  is  entirely  free  from  difficulty,  but  the 
one  given  in  the  text  seems  to  me  the  least  difficult,  (i)  A  great  objection  to  other 
views  is  the  conclusion  :  it  seems  impossible,  without  straining,  to  make  the  Prophet 
guilty  of  any  fault  (mistrust,  etc.,  is  suggested)  for  which  he  should  be  invited  to 
repent.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  see  why  the  Prophet  should  speak  xv.  15-18  after  the  full 
assurance  given  him  in  xv.  11.  On  the  other  hand  the  Divine  reply  (xv.  19)  seems 
a  natural  reference  to  the  '  purged  remnant '  which  in  all  prophecy  appears  as  the 
only  portion  of  the  nation  to  be  saved.  No  doubt  verses  20,  21  refer  to  Jeremiah  : 
but  they  are  outside  the  rhapsody,  being  an  epilogue  added  to  this  as  to  other 
important  prophecies  (compare  i.  18  and  vi.  27).  (2)  In  two  speeches  which  I 
assign  to  the  Repentant  People  (xiv.  7-9,  19-22)  the  plural  is  uniformly  used  :  and 
the  lyric  prologue  has  prepared  us  to  hear  Judah  mourning.  It  is  true  that  the 
third  speech  (xv.  15-18)  uses  the  singular  :  but  that  immediately  follows  the  speech 
of  God  (12-14)  in  which  the  singular  is  us6d,  and  which  is  undoubtedly  addressed 
to  the  People  and  not  to  the  Prophet.  (3)  The  ordinary  view  ignores  the  marked 
distinction  between  "The  Lord  said  unto  me"  in  xiv.  11  (contrast  10),  xiv.  14 
(compare  17),  xv.  i,  as  compared  with  the  usual  formula,  "  The  Lord  said,"  in  xv. 
II  (and  19),  and  the  beautiful  dramatic  effect  which  this  suggests. 


382  BIBLICAL  LITER  A  TURE    OF  PROrilECY 


Jeremiah  xiv-xv        RHAPSODY   OF  THE   DROUGHT 

Prelude 

Judah  mourneth, 

And  the  gates  thereof  languish; 

They  sit  in  black  upon  the  ground; 
And  the  cry  of  Jerusalem  is  gone  up. 

And  their  nobles  send  their  little  ones  to  the  waters : 

They  come  to  the  pits,  and  find  no  water; 

They  return  with  their  vessels  empty  : 
They  are  ashamed  and  confounded,  and  cover  their  heads. 

Because  of  the  ground  which  is  chapt, 

For  that  no  rain  hath  been  in  the  land, 
The  plowmen  are  ashamed,  they  cover  their  heads. 

Yea,  the  hind  also  in  the  field  calveth. 

And  forsaketh  her  young, 
Because  there  is  no  grass. 

And  the  wild  asses  stand  on  the  bare  heights, 

They  pant  for  air  like  jackals;    their  eyes  fail, 
Because  there  is  no  herbage. 

Repentant  Israel 

Though  our  iniquities  testify  against  us,  work  thou  for  thy  name's 
sake,  O  Lord:  for  our  backslidings  are  many;  we  have  sinned 
against  thee.  O  thou  hope  of  Israel,  the  saviour  thereof  in  the  time 
of  trouble,  why  shouldest  thou  be  as  a  sojourner  in  the  land,  and 
as  a  wayfaring  man  that  turneth  aside  to  tarry  for  a  night?  Why 
shouldest  thou  be  as  a  man  astonied,  as  a  mighty  man  that  cannot 
save?  yet  thou,  O  Lord,  art  in  the  midst  of  us,  and  we  are  called  by 
thy  name;   leave  us  not. 

The  Prophet 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  unto  this  people,  Even  so  have  they  loved  to 

wander;  they  have  not  refrained  their  feet :  therefore  the  Lord  doth 

not   accept  them;    now  will    he  remember  their  iniquity,  and  visit 

their  sins. 

The  Lord  {to  the  Prophef) 

Pray  not  for  this  people  for  their  good.  When  they  fast,  I  will 
not  hear  their  cry;  and  when  they  offer  burnt  offering  and  oblation, 
I  will  not  accept  them :  but  I  will  consume  them  by  the  sword,  and 
by  the  famine,  and  l)y  the  pestilence. 


THE  KIIAPSODY  383 

The  Prophet 

Ah,  Lord  God!  behold,  the  prophets  say  unto  them,  Ye  shall  not 
see  the  sword,  neither  shall  ye  have  famine;  but  I  will  give  you 
assured  peace  in  this  place. 

The  Lord  (/c  the  Prophet) 

The  prophets  prophesy  lies  in  my  name  :  I  sent  them  not,  neither 
have  I  commanded  them,  neither  spake  I  unto  them:  they  prophesy 
unto  you  a  lying  vision,  and  divination,  and  a  thing  of  nought,  and 
the  deceit  of  their  own  heart.  Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  con- 
cerning the  prophets  that  prophesy  in  my  name,  and  I  sent  them  not, 
yet  they  say.  Sword  and  famine  shall  not  be  in  this  land :  By  sword 
and  famine  shall  those  prophets  be  consumed.  And  the  people  to 
whom  they  prophesy  shall  be  cast  out  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem 
because  of  the  famine  and  the  sword;  and  they  shall  have  none 
to  bury  them,  their  wives,  nor  their  sons,  nor  their  daughters  :  for 
I  will  pour  their  wickedness  upon  them.  And  thou  shalt  say  this 
word  unto  them.  Let  mine  eyes  run  down  with  tears  night  and  day, 
and  let  them  not  cease;  for  the  virgin  daughter  of  my  people  is 
broken  with  a  great  breach,  with  a  very  grievous  wound.  If  I  go 
forth  into  the  field,  then  behold  the  slain  with  the  sword  !  and  if  I 
enter  into  the  city,  then  behold  them  that  are  sick  with  famine  !  for 
both  the  prophet  and  the  priest  go  about  in  the  land  and  have  no 
knowledge. 

Repentant  Israel 

Hast  thou  utterly  rejected  Judah  ?  hath  thy  soul  loathed  Zion? 
Why  hast  thou  smitten  us,  and  there  is  no  healing  for  us?  We 
looked  for  peace,  but  no  good  came;  and  for  a  time  of  healing,  and 
behold  dismay !  We  acknowledge,  O  Lord,  our  wickedness,  and 
the  iniquity  of  our  fathers:  for  we  have  sinned  against  thee.  Do 
not  abhor  us,  for  thy  name's  sake;  do  not  disgrace  the  throne  of 
thy  glory :  remember,  break  not  thy  covenant  with  us.  Are  there 
any  among  the  vanities  of  the  heathen  that  can  cause  rain?  or  can 
the  heavens  give  showers?  art  not  thou  he,  O  Lord  our  God? 
therefore  we  will  wait  upon  thee;   for  thou  hast  done  all  these  things. 

The  Lord  {to  the  Prophet') 

Though  Moses  and  Samuel  stood  before  me,  yet  my  mind  could 
not  be  toward  this  people :   cast  them  out  of  my  sight,  and  let  them 


384  BIBLICAL  LITEL^ATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

go  forth.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  when  they  say  unto  thee, 
Whither  shall  we  go  forth  ?  then  thou  shalt  tell  them,  Thus  saith  the 
Lord  :  Such  as  are  for  death,  to  death ;  and  such  as  are  for  the 
.  sword,  to  the  sword;  and  such  as  are  for  the  famine,  to  the  famine; 
and  such  as  are  for  captivity,  to  captivity.  And  I  will  appoint  over 
them  four  kinds,  saith  the  Lord  :  the  sword  to  slay,  and  the  dogs  to 
tear,  and  the  fowls  of  the  heaven,  and  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  to 
devour  and  to  destroy.  And  I  will  cause  them  to  be  tossed  to  and 
fro  among  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  because  of  Manasseh  the 
son  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah,  for  that  which  he  did  in  Jerusalem. 
For  who  shall  have  pity  upon  thee,  O  Jerusalem  ?  or  who  shall 
bemoan  thee  ?  or  who  shall  turn  aside  to  ask  of  thy  welfare  ?  Thou 
hast  rejected  me,  saith  the  Lord,  thou  art  gone  backward :  therefore 
have  I  stretched  out  my  hand  against  thee,  and  destroyed  thee;  I 
am  weary  with  repenting.  And  I  have  fanned  them  with  a  fan  in 
the  gates  of  the  land;  I  have  bereaved  them  of  children,  I  have 
destroyed  my  people;  they  have  not  returned  from  their  ways.  Their 
'  widows  are  increased  to  me  above  the  sand  of  the  seas :  I  have 
brought  upon  them  against  the  mother  of  the  young  men  a  spoiler  at 
noonday :  I  have  caused  anguish  and  terrors  to  fall  upon  her  sud- 
denly. She  that  hath  borne  seven  languisheth ;  she  hath  given  up 
the  ghost;  her  sun  is  gone  down  while  it  was  yet  day;  she  hath  been 
ashamed  and  confounded :  and  the  residue  of  them  will  I  deliver  to 
the  sword  before  their  enemies,  saith  the  Lord. 

The  Prophet 

Woe  is  me,  my  mother,  that  thou  hast  borne  me  a  man  of  strife 
and  a  man  of  contention  to  the  whole  earth !  I  have  not  lent  on 
usury,  neither  have  men  lent  to  me  on  usury;  yet  every  one  of 
them  doth  curse  me. 

The  Lord  (Jo  the  Prophet) 

Verily  I  will  strengthen  thee  for  good;  verily  I  will  intercede  for 
thee  with  the  enemy  in  the  time  of  evil  and  in  the  time  of  affliction. 
—  (^To  Israel)  — Can  one  break  iron,  even  iron  from  the  north  and 
brass?  Thy  substance  and  thy  treasures  will  I  give  for  a  spoil  with- 
out price,  and  that  for  all  thy  sins,  even  in  all  thy  borders.  And  I 
will  make  thee  to  serve  thine  enemies  in  a  land  which  thou  knowest 
not :  for  a  fire  is  kindled  in  mine  anger,  which  shall  burn  upon 
you. 


THE   RHAPSODY  385 

Repentant  Israel 

O  Lord,  thou  knowest :  remember  me,  and  visit  me,  and  avenge 
me  of  my  persecutors;  take  me  not  away  in  thy  longsuffering. 
Know  that  for  thy  sake  I  have  suffered  reproach.  Thy  words  were 
found,  and  I  did  eat  them;  and  thy  words  were  unto  me  a  joy  and 
the  rejoicing  of  mine  heart :  for  I  am  called  by  thy  name,  O  Lord 
God  of  hosts.  I  sat  not  in  the  assembly  of  them  that  make  merry, 
nor  rejoiced  :  I  sat  alone  because  of  thy  hand ;  for  thou  hast  filled 
me  with  indignation.  Why  is  my  pain  perpetual,  and  my  wound 
incurable,  which  refuseth  to  be  healed?  wilt  thou  indeed  be  unto  me 
as  a  deceitful  brook,  as  waters  that  fail? 

The  Lord 

Therefore,  if  thou  return,  then  will  I  bring  thee  again,  that  thou 
mayest  stand  before  me;  and  if  thou  take  forth  the  precious  from 
the  vile,  thou  shalt  be  as  my  mouth:  they  shall  return  unto  thee,  but 
thou  shalt  not  return  unto  them. 


Epilogue.  —  To  the  Prophet 

And  I  will  make  thee  unto  this  people  a  fenced  brasen  wall;  and 
they  shall  fight  against  thee,  but  they  shall  not  prevail  against  thee : 
for  I  am  with  thee  to  save  thee,  and  to  deliver  th.ee,  saith  the  Lord. 
And  I  will  deliver  thee  out  of  the  hand  of  the  wicked,  and  I  will 
redeem  thee  out  of  the  hand  of  the  terrible. 


If,  on  the  one  hand,  we  thus  see  dramatic  prophecy  passing 
into  rhapsody  by  the  addition  of  an  element  of  description,  we 
can,  looking  to  the  other  side,  observe  how  discourse  can  sway 
in  the  direction  of  dramatic  machinery,  and  so  become  rhapsodic. 
L  have  before  drawn  attention  to  such  a  prophecy  as  that  of 
Zephaniah,  in  which  the  continuity  of  Divine  speech  is  broken 
by  outbursts  of  impersonal  lyrics,  exulting  in  delivered  Zion,  or 
triumphing  over  the  threatened  foe.  Again,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  the  fervour  of  prophetic  oratory  can  suddenly  change  to 
realising  the  predicted   future   as  if  immediately   present.     The 


3S6  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OE  PROPIIECy 

lengthy  discourse  in  which  Isaiah  describes  the  Assyrian  as  the 
rod  of  God's  anger,  and  pictures  the  reign  of  peace  that  would 
follow  the  Assyrian's  overthrow,  is  throughout  couched  in  the 
future  tense  :  at  just  a  single  point  the  future  tense  gives  place  to 
the  realistic  present. 

He  is  come  to  Aiath,  he  is  passed  through  Migron;  at  Michmash 
he  layeth  up  his  baggage:  they  are  gone  over  the  pass;  "  Geba  is 
our  lodging,"  they  cry;  Ramah  trembleth;  Gibeah  of  Saul  is  fled. 
Cry  aloud  with  thy  voice,  O  daughter  of  Gallim  !  hearken,  O  Laishah  ! 
O  thou  poor  Anathoth  !  Madmenah  is  a  fugitive;  the  inhabitants 
of  Gebim  gather  themselves  to  flee.  This  very  day  shall  he  halt  at 
Nob;  he  shaketh  his  hand  at  the  mount  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
the  hill  of  Jerusalem. 

Behold  the  Lord,  the  Lord  of  hosts,  shall  lop  the  boughs  with 
terror :  and  the  high  ones  of  stature  shall  be  hewn  down,  and  the 
lofty  shall  be  brought  low.  And  he  shall  cut  down  the  thickets  of 
the  forest  with  iron,  and  Lebanon  shall  fall  by  a  mighty  one.  And 
there  shall  come  forth  a  shoot  out  of  the  stock  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch 
out  of  his  roots  shall  bear  fruit. 

In  the  same  way  most  of  the  Doom  Songs  (except  those  of 
Ezekiel)  are  rhapsodic  :  the  denunciations  and  predictions  alter- 
nate with  various  modes  of  presenting  the  fulfilment  of  the 
same. 

The  Rhapsodic  Discourse,  as  distinguished  from  the  Rhapsody, 

is  illustrated  on  the  largest  scale  in  a  portion  of  Jcroniah  which 

I  would  describe  as  his  Prophetic  Manifesto.     It  is 

Rhapsody  from      g.  long  composition  of  five  chapters,  following  the 

Jeremiah's Mani-  ^    ,  ,       .  ,,  ,  i      i    •        ,i 

festo  (ii-vi)  account  of  the  prophetic  call,  and  embodymg  the 

general  spirit  of  Jeremiah's  ministry.     The  greater 
part  of  it  is  discourse,  marked  by  the   mingling  of  imagery  and 
pathetic  appeal  which  distinguishes  this  prophet ;  I  take  it  up  at 
the  point  where  it   abrupdy  passes  into   the    dramatic 
*^'  ^  form  of  rhapsody.     While  there  is  a  slight  suggestion  of 

succession  between  its  parts,  in  the  fact  that  the  threatened  judg- 
ment seems  to  advance  nearer  and  nearer,  yet  the  main  movement 


l^HE  KIIAPSODY  387 

is  the  pendulum  movement  of  alternation  :  —  an  alternation,  not 
between  judgment  and  salvation,  but  between  the  impending 
Doom  and  the  Panic  of  those  who  are  about  to  suffer  it. 


I  reckon  as  first  of  the  seven,  sections  that  which  does  not  pass 
beyond  the  limits  of  discourse  ;  though  the  discourse  is  approach- 
ing nearer  and  nearer  to  dramatic  form  in  the  direct  appeals  to 
Israel,  and  the  imagined  responses  of  the  people.  But  at  last 
the  rhapsodic  form  becomes  pronounced,  and  the  alternation  of 
Doom  and  Panic  begins. 


A  Cry 

Declare  ye  in  Judah,  and  publish  in  Jerusalem,  and  say,  Blow  ye 
the  trumpet  in  the  land :  cry  aloud  and  say,  Assemble  yourselves, 
and  let  us  go  into  the  fenced  cities.  Set  up  a  standard  toward  Zion : 
flee  fur  safety,  stay  not:  for  I  will  bring  evil  from  the  north,  and  a 
great  destruction.  A  lion  is  gone  up  from  his  thicket,  and  a  destroyer 
of  nations;  he  is  on  his  way,  he  is  gone  forth  from  his  place;  to 
make  thy  land  desolate,  that  thy  cities  be  laid  waste,  without  in^ 
habitant. 

THE  PEOPLE 

For  this  gird  you  'with  sackcloth,  la7nent  and  howl :  for  the  fierce 
anger  of  the  LORD  is  not  turned  back  fron^  us. 

THE  LORD 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  atjhat  day,  that  the  heart  of  the  king  shall 
perish,  and  the  heart  of  the  princes  ;  and  the  priests  shall  be  aston- 
ished, and  the  prophets  shall  wonder. 

THE  PROPHET 

Ah,  Lord  GOD  I  surely  thou  hast  greatly  deceived  this  people  and 
Jerusalem,  saying.  Ye  shall  have  peace  ;  whereas  the  sword  reacheth 
unto  the  soul. 


388  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  FROTH  EC  Y 

3 

A  Cry  to  Jkrusalem 

A  hot  wind  from  the  bare  heights  in  the  wilderness  toward  the 
daughter  of  my  people,  not  to  fan,  nor  to  cleanse ;  —  a  full  wind  from 
these  shall  come  for  me :  now  will  I  also  utter  judgements  against 
them.  Behold,  he  shall  come  jip  as  clouds,  and  his  chariots  shall  be 
as  the  whirlwind :  his  horses  are  swifter  than  eagles. 

THE  PEOPLE 
Woe  unto  us  !  for  we  are  spoiled. 

THE  PROPHET 

O  Jerusalem,  wash  thine  heart  from  vcickedness,  that  thou  mayest 
be  saved.     How  long  shall  thine  evil  thoughts  lodge  within  thee  ? 

4 

Voices  from  Dan  and  from  the  Hills  of  Ephraim 

Make  ye  mention  to  the  nations;  behold,  publish  against  Jerusa- 
lem, that  watchers  come  from  a  far  country,  and  give  out  their  voice 
against  the  cities  of  Judah.  As  keepers  of  a  field  ate  they  against 
her  round  about;  "  because  she  hath  been  rebellious  against  me," 
saith  the  Lord.  Thy  way  and  thy  doings  have  procured  these  things 
unto  thee;  this  is  thy  wickedness;  surely  it  is  bitter,  surely  it  reach- 
eth  unto  thine  heart. 

THE  PEOPLE 

My  bowels,  my  bowels  !  I  am  pained  at  my  very  heart ;  my  heart 
is  disquieted  in  me  ;  I  cannot  hold  my  peace  ;  because  thou  hast  heard, 

0  my  soul,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  alarm  of  war.  Destruction 
upon  destruction  is  cried ;  for  the  whole  land  is  spoiled :  suddenly 
are  my  tents  spoiled,  and  my  curtains  in  a  moment.     How  long  shall 

1  see  the  standard,  and  hear  the  sound  of  the  trumpet? 

GOD 

For  my  people  is  foolish,  they  knoiu  me  not ;  they  are  sottish  chil- 
dren, and  they  have  none  understanding:  they  are  wise  to  do  evil,  hit 
to  do  good  they  have  no  knoivledge. 


THE   RHAPSODY  389 

5 

Vision 

I  beheld  the  earth,  and,  lo,  it  was  waste  and  void;  and  the 
heavens,  and  they  had  no  Hght.  I  beheld  the  mountains,  and,  lo, 
they  trembled,  and  all  the  hills  moved  to  and  fro.  I  beheld,  and, 
lo,  there  was  no  man,  and  all  the  birds  of  the  heaven  were  fled.  I 
beheld,  and,  lo,  the  fruitful  field  was  a  wilderness,  and  all  the  cities 
thereof  were  broken  down  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  before 
his  fierce  anger. 

The  Lord 

The  whole  land  shall  be  a  desolation;  yet  will  I  not  make  a  full 
end.  For  this  shall  the  earth  mourn,  and  the  heavens  above  be 
black  :  because  I  have  spoken  it,  I  have  purposed  it,  and  I  have  not 
repented,  neither  will  I  turn  back  from  it. 

VISION  continued 

The  whole  city  Jleeth  for  the  noise  of  the  horsemen  and  ho-aimen  ; 
they  go  into  the  thickets,  and  climb  tip  upon  the  rocks :  evoy  city  is 
forsaken,  and  not  a  man  dzvelleth  therein. 

THE  LORD 
And  thou,  ivhen  thou  art  spoiled,  ivhat  wilt  thou  do  ?     Though  thou 
clothest  thyself  with  scarlet,  though  thou  deckest  thee  with  ornaments 
of  gold,  though  thou  enlargest  thine  eyes  with  paint,  in  vain  dost  thou 
make  thyself  fair  ;  thy  lovers  despise  thee,  they  seek  thy  life. 

VISION  continued 

For  I  have  heard  a  voice  as  of  a  woman  in  travail,  the  anguish  as 
of  her  that  bringeth  forth  her  first  child,  the  voice  of  the  daughter  of 
Zion,  that  gaspeth  for  breath,  that  spreadeth  her  hands,  saying,  IVoe 
is  me  now  I  for  my  soul  fainteth  before  the  murderers. 


Through  these  alternating  passages  of  doom  and  panic  the  judg- 
ment has  seemed  to  advance  :  at  first  it  was  only  announced  from 
a  distance  ;  in  the  last  sections  the  desolation  was  fully  seen,  but 
only  in  vision.     The  next  section  is  too  lengthy  to  quote.     As  if 


390  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  rROPIIECY 

with  a  reminiscence  of  Abraham's  intercession  for  Sodom,  God 
bids  the  prophet  search  Jerusalem  through  and  through  for  a  sin- 
gle just  man,  that  he  may  pardon  her.  The  prophet  tries  low  and 
high  in  vain.  Then  the  Lord  reluctantly  calls  the  enemy  to  go  up 
and  destroy,  "but  make  not  a  full  end."  As  if  using  the  moments 
of  waiting,  God  is  represented  as  pouring  out  descriptions  of  the 
terrible  foe  —  mighty  men,  whose  quiver  is  an  open  sepulchre  — 
and  remonstrances  against  the  hardness  of  heart  that  in  the  very 
presence  of  judgment  will  not  turn  to  the  judge.  All  seems  in 
vain.  The  conclusion  is  "  astonishment  and  horror " :  false 
prophets  and  subservient  priests,  and  a  people  that  loves  to  have 
it  so  !  What  will  they  do  in  the  end  ?  Now  the  panic  appears ; 
the  destruction  arrives,  yet  is  still  held  under  restraint. 

THE  PEOPLE 
Flee  for  safety,  ye  children  of  Benjamin,  out  of  the  midst  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  blow  the  trumpet  in   Tekoa,  and  raise  up  a  signal  on 
Beth-haccherem  :  for  evil  looketh  forth  from  the  north,  and  a  great 
destruction. 

THE  LORD 

The  comely  and  delicate  one,  the  daughter  of  Zion,  ivill  I  cut  off. 
Shepherds  ivith  their  flocks  shall  come  unto  her  ;  they  shall  pitch  their 
tents  against  her  round  about ;  they  shall  feed  every  one  in  his  place. 

THE  ENEMY 
Prepare  ye  war  agaitist  her  ;  arise,  and  let  us  go  up  at  noon. 

THE  PEOPLE 
Woe  unto  us  !  for  the  day  declineth,  for  the  shadoios  of  the  evening 
are  stretched  out. 

THE  ENEMY 

Arise,  and  let  us  go  up  by  night,  and  let  us  destroy  her  palaces. 
For  thus  hath  the  LORD  of  hosts  said,  Hew  ye  down  trees,  and  cast 
up  a  mount  against  Jerusalem  :  this  is  the  city  to  be  visited. 

THE  LORD 
She  is  rvholly  oppression  in  the  midst  of  her.     As  a  well  casteth 
forth  her  waters,  so  she  casteth  forth  her  wickedness  :  violence  and 
spoil  is  heard  in  her  ;  before  me  continually  is  sickness  and  'wounds. 


THE  RHAPSODY  391 


Even  in  the  presence  of  the  destroying  foe  a  final  attempt  is 
made  by  God  at  least  to  glean  a  remnant  of  Israel.  But  there 
is  none  to  listen ;  the  ear  of  the  people  is  uncircumcised  ;  they 
refuse  to  walk  in  the  old  paths,  to  hearken  to  the  watchmen  :  the 
word  of  the  Lord  has  become  to  them  a  reproach.  "Therefore," 
cries  Jehovah,  "  I  am  full  of  the  fury  of  Jehovah ;  I  am  weary 
with  holding  in."  The  fury  is  to  be  poured  out  upon  old  and 
young,  families  and  fields ;  the  people  from  the  north  are  stirred 
up  against  Zion,  a  people  who  are  cruel,  and  have  no  mercy. 
There  remains  only  the  final  panic. 

THE  PEOPLE 

We  have  heard  the  fame  thereof;  our  hands  %vax  feeble :  anguish 
hath  taken  hold  of  tis,  and  pangs  as  of  a  woman  in  travail.  Go  not 
forth  into  the  field,  nor  walk  by  the  way  ;  for  there  is  the  sword  of  the 
enemy,  and  terror  on  every  side.  O  daughter  of  my  people,  gird  thee 
with  sackcloth,  and  wallow  thyself  in  ashes :  make  thee  mourning,  as 
for  an  only  son,  most  bitter  lamentation  ;  for  the  spoiler  shall  stid- 
denly  come  itpon  us  I 

In  the  rhapsodies  so  far  reviewed  we  have  seen  the  movement 

that  consists  in  a  continuous  advance,  and   the  movement  that 

advances  only  by  alternations.     There  is  a  third 

type  of  movement  in  which  the  distinctness  of  the  p^Jg™^"    ^ 

parts  is  more  prominent  than  the  progress  from 

one  part  to  another.    Such  divisions  in  the  movement  of  a  literary 

composition  are  felt  to  correspond  to  the  '  Acts  '  of  a  drama,  but, 

differing  from  these  Acts  by  the  absence  of  continuous  succession, 

they  should  be  indicated  by  some  different  name,  such  as  '  Phases.' 

The  prophecy  of  Amos  is  an  illustration,  and  con- 

.  Amos's  Rhap- 

stitutes  a  smgle  Rhapsody  of  the  Judgment  to  come,   sody  of  the 

The  first  of  the  three  divisions  or  'Phases'  into  Judgment  to 

which  it  falls  brings  out  Israel's  part  in  a  general 

judgment,  and  it  is  a  piece  of  Lyric  Prophecy.    The  second  Phase 


392  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

is  a  series  of  appeals  to  Israel,  and  is  in  the  form  of  Discourse. 
The  third  presents  the  coming  of  the  judgment  in  the  form  of 
Dramatic  Vision. 

The  portion  constituting  the  first  Phase  has  been  cited  at  length 
in  a  previous  chapter.^     It  is  a  chain  of  lyric  woes  denounced 

against  various  peoples  :  free  recitative  of  prose  detailing 
^^^^^  ^      special  features  of  each,  while  rhythmic  refrains  speak 

the  common  doom.  It  is  clear  that  the  various  denun- 
ciations are  so  arranged  as  to  lead  up  to  that  on  Israel  as  a 
climax.  A  note  of  this  prophet's  treatment  is  his  power  of  em- 
phasising by  holding  back.  What  the  judgment  on  Israel  is  to 
be  is  kept  a  mystery ;  the  formula  used  for  the  other  nations  — 
devouring  fire  —  does  not  appear  in  the  last  case,  but  the  judg- 
ment is  described  only  by  its  effects,  —  flight  perishing  from  the 
swift,  and  the  mighty  unable  to  deliver  himself. 

The  second  Phase  is  a  series  of  appeals  increasing  in  intensity. 
First,  we  have  four  general  appeals,  each  ushered  in  by  the  cry, 

"  Hear  ye,"  or  "  Publish  ye."  Then  follows  a  pleading 
...^®5        in  which  discourse  becomes  lyrical.   The  successive  warn- 

ings  sent  by  God  are  enumerated  —  cleanness  of  teeth, 
the  guilty  city  isolated  by  drought  with  abundance  all  around, 
blasting  and  mildew,  pestilence  after  the  manner  of  Egypt,  and 
burning  like  that  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  —  and  after  each  comes 
the  refrain,  "  Yet  have  ye  not  returned  to  me,  saith  the  Lord." 
The  pleading  turns  to  a  threat : 

Therefore  thus  will  I  do  unto  thee,  O  Israel :  and  because  I  will  do 
THIS  unto  thee,  prepare  to  meet  thy  God,  O  Israel. 

The  coming  judgment  still  remains  veiled  under  the  mysterious 

thus.     The  last  appeal  takes  the  form  of  a  lamentation,  including 

a  double  woe  :    against    those  who   desire    the    Day  of 

v-vi.  7 

the  Lord,  not  seeing  that  it  will  be  darkness  and  not 
light ;  and  against  those  that  are  at  ease  in  Zion,  and  put  far  away 
the  evil  day.     The  limit  of  appeal  seems  now  to  be  reached  :  God 

1  Above,  page  114. 


THE  RHAPSODY  393 

swears  by  Himself  that  Jacob  and  his  sins  have  become  a  thing  of 
abhorrence.     And  the  mystic  judgment   begins  to  take 
substance,  as  we  hear  of  captivity  in  the  east  and  the   ^^'  "''' 
nation  that  is  to  afflict  the  whole  land. 

With  the  third  Phase  the  judgment  appears  sensibly  to  advance, 
as  the  series  of  visions  pass  before  us.  A  visionary  appearance  of 
locusts  at  their  work  of  destruction  is  seen  :  but  when 
the  destruction  has  proceeded  a  certain  way  the  prophet  ^^^^®  "^ 
interposes  his  intercession,  and  the  Lord  repents  and 
says  it  shall  not  be.  Another  vision^  and  fire  is  seen  devouring 
the  great  deep ;  but  when  it  reaches  the  land  the  prophet  again 
makes  intercession,  and  the  judgment  is  stayed.  The  next  vision 
displays  a  plumbline  :  the  exact  limit  has  been  reached,  beyond 
which  there  can  be  no  passing  by  of  the  iniquities  of  Israel.  The 
emphasis  of  this  as  a  turning-point  is  further  seen  by  the  way  in 
which  the  prophet  introduces  here  his  digression,  describ- 

vii,  10-17 

ing  the  efforts  of  those  in  authority  to  restrain  him  from 

prophesying  evil  to  Israel.     We  are  thus  prepared  for  the  next 

vision  of  summer  fruit :  Israel  is  ripe  for  her  fall.     With  the  final 

vision  the  judgment  has  be"un.     The  Lord,  standing  on 

•'      *=  °  '  °  ix.  1-6 

the  altar  of  his  house,  bids  smite  the  chapiters,  that  the 

thresholds  may  shake,   and   universal  destruction  of  house  and 

people  may  follow. 

Though  they  dig  into  hell,  thence  shall  mine  hand  take  them;  and 
though  they  climb  up  to  heaven,  thence  will  I  bring  them  down. 
And  though  they  hide  themselves  in  the  top  of  Carmel,  I  will  search 
and  take  them  out  thence;  and  though  they  be  hid  from  my  sight 
in  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  thence  will  I  command  the  serpent,  and  he 
shall  bite  them. 

An   Epilogue  drops  dramatic  presentation  for  appeal ;    and  fur- 
ther speaks  of  a  remnant  to  be  restored.     Thus  the  last  strain  of 
this,  as  of  other  rhapsodies,  can  be  the  song  of  a  golden 
age,  when  "  the  plowman  shall  overtake  the  reaper,  and    .  ^'  °^® 
the  treader  of  grapes  him  that  soweth  seed  "  ;  and  the 
people  shall  be  planted  upon  their  land,  to  be  plucked  up  no  more. 


394  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OE  PROPHECY 

I  have  felt  it  less  necessary  to  dwell  in  detail  upon  this  beau- 
tiful prophecy  of  Amos,  because  the  movement  by  phases  which 
it  illustrates  will  be  found  again  in  another  composition,  a  colossal 
and  wonderful  example  of  the  rhapsodic  form,  which  needs  a 
separate  chapter  for  its  consideration. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE    RHAPSODY    OF    '  ZION    REDEEMED  '    \Isaiah    XL-LXVl] 

The  last  twenty-seven  chapters  of  our  Book  of  Isaiah  form  a 
single  composition  :  no  less  stupendous  as  a  literary  monument 
than    supreme    in    importance    as    inspiration    of 
Hebrew  and  Christian   religion.     To    expound   it  Isaiah's  Rhap- 

,,    ,        T-  ■      sody  of  '  Zion 

would  require  a  volume  ;  all  that  I  can  attempt  is  Redeemed ' 
to  elucidate   its  outer  literary  form,  well  assured 
that  here,  as  always,  this  must  be  an  important  factor  in  the  inter- 
pretation. 

Every  reader  feels  a  difficulty  in  catching  the  unity  of  the 
whole,  however  strongly  he  may  feel  the  attraction  of  the  parts. 
No  narrative  is  carried  on  from  beginning  to  end,  though  there  is 
much  to  suggest  progress  of  story ;  though  reasoning  abounds, 
there  is  no  sign  of  a  logical  plan ;  if  the  reader  seeks  to  take 
refuge  in  supposing  a  collection  of  many  compositions,  he  is  con- 
tinually confronted  with  evidences  of  unity.  The  full  force  of 
this  part  of  the  Bible  is  brought  out  by  considering  it  a  Rhapsody, 
—  the  prophetic  form  made  by  the  fusion  of  all  literary  forms  in 
one ;  which  can  thus  give  the  realistic  emphasis  of  dramatic 
presentation  to  its  ideas,  while  free  at  any  point  to  abandon 
drama  for  discourse  or  lyric  meditation.  This  Rhapsody  of  Zion 
Redeemed  has   a   movement   which,   like   that   of 

other  rhapsodies,  is  best  compared  to  the  succes-  "^  general 

r  r-.  •  ^        ,  ,     ,        ,  •      movement  and 

sion  of  parts  in  an  Oratorio.     On  the  whole,  this  matter 

movement  is  so  far  an   advance  that,  like   many 

other  prophecies,  it  works  forward  from  an  immediate  judgment 

395 


396  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  FROTIIECY 

and  deliverance,  on  to  the  final  judgment  of  the  nations  and  resto- 
ration of  the  remnant  in  a  Messianic  kingdom.  But  the  seven 
divisions  into  which  the  whole  falls  are  not  seven  stages  in  this 
advance,  but  (like  those  in  the  prophecy  of  Amos)  seven  different 
*  phases,'  side  by  side  in  part  and  partly  successive,  each  complete 
in  itself  and  drawing  matter  from  all  parts  of  the  national  history, 
and  all  necessary  to  be  exhibited  before  the  action  is  consum- 
mated.    The  seven  Phases  may  be  described  as  follows  :  — 

I 
Judgment  on  Babylon 

2 

Jehovah's  Servant  and  Desponding  Zion 

3 

The  Awakening  of  Zion 

4 

Jehovah's  Servant  Exalted 

5 

Zion  Exalted 

6 

The  Redeemer  come  to  Zion 

7 

Judgment  on  Zion  and  the  Nations 

The  mere  reading  of  these  titles  suggests  advance  in  the  move- 
ment as  a  whole.  Yet  it  is  impossible  to  say  that  (for  example) 
the  sixth  section  either  follows  or  precedes  those  standing  before 
it :  it  embraces  the  whole  action  looked  at  from  a  particular  point 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  397 

of  view,  and  is  placed  where  it  is  because  of  the  relation  of  that 
point  of  view  to  the  whole.  Further,  as  the  rhapsodic  form  can 
mingle  dramatic  realisation  with  the  most  spiritual  meditation  or 
imaginative  idealising,  so  the  matter  of  the  whole  prophecy 
extends  from  an  immediate  deliverance  of  Babylonian  Captives, 
by  the  instrumentahty  of  Cyrus,  to  a  spiritual  redemption  of  Zion, 
and  final  judgment  of  the  nations  by  Jehovah.  And  similarly 
the  hero  of  this  rhapsody  —  the  '  Servant  of  Jehovah  '  —  appears 
at  some  points  as  Israel  the  nation,  charged  with  a  mission  to 
itself  and  to  the  Gentiles  ;  in  other  places  it  seems  to  individualise 
into  a  humanity  that  can  suffer  martyrdom,  and,  in  the  memorable 
central  act  of  the  rhapsody,  has  become  a  mystic  personality, 
whose  sufferings  are  at  last  recognised  by  the  nations  as  vicarious. 

Prelude 

The  Prelude  embodies  the  spirit  of  the  whole  rhapsody  in  brief 
lyric  and  dramatic  form.     The  Voice  of  God  is  heard  command- 
ing to  speak  comfort  to  Jerusalem,  and  cry  to  her  that 
her  warfare  is  accomplished,  and  her  iniquity  pardoned. 
At  once  voices  appear  to  take  up  the  message  and  carry  it  on  to 
its  destination.    A  Voice  cries  to  prepare  in  the  wilderness  a  high- 
way for  God  ;  every  valley  is  to  be  exalted  and  every  mountain 
and  hill  made  low,  the  crooked  is  to  be  made  straight  and  the 
rough  places  plain  :    the  glory  of  the  Lord  is  about  to  be  re- 
vealed,   and   all    flesh   shall   see   it   together.      Another 
Voice  in  succession  passes  on  the  word ;  but  here  the 
Voice  of  the  Tidings  is  checked  by  the  Voice  of  Despondency. 

What  shall  I  cry? 

All  flesh  is  grass, 

And  all  the  goodliness  thereof  is  as  the  flower  of  the  field : 

The  grass  withereth, 

The  flower  fadeth; 

Because  the  breath  of  the  Lord  bloweth  upon  it : 
Surely  the  people  is  grass. 


398  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

But  the  Voice  of  the  Tidings  makes  reply  : 

The  grass  withereth, 
The  flower  fadeth : 
But  the  word  of  our  God  shall  stand  for  ever. 

Another  Voice  seems  to  sound  from  far  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem : 
bidding  to  get  up  into  the  high  mountain  to  tell  the  good 
^        tidings  to  Zion,  to  lift  up  the  voice  with  strength,  to  say 
to  the  cities  of  Judah,  Behold  your  God  ! 

Phase  I 

The  first  Phase  is  the  elaborate  presentation  of  the  Judgment  on 

Babylon.     The  Voice  of  Prophecy  strikes  the  key-note,  celebrating 

the    supremacy  of  Jehovah :    who    measureth   the 

xl.  12-xlviii  •        1        1     11  /•  1  •      1         1  1  1 

waters  m  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  meteth  out 
heaven  with  a  span,  weighing  the  mountains  in  scales  and  the  hills 
in  a  balance  ;  before  whom  the  nations  are  as  a  drop  in  a  bucket ; 
he  taketh  up  the  isles  as  a  very  httle  thing.  To  what,  then,  shall 
this  God  be  likened  ?  to  a  graven  image,  gilded  by  a  goldsmith, 
with  silver  chains  cast  for  it  lest  the  god  fall  down  ?  or  wrought 
for  the  impoverished  worshipper  by  a  cunning  workman  out  of  a 
tree,  chosen  carefully  lest  the  god  might  rot?  Meanwhile  He 
sitteth  above  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  all  the  inhabitants  thereof 
are  but  as  grasshoppers ;  He  calleth  all  the  host  of  heaven  by 
number  and  by  name,  and  for  that  He  is  strong  not  one  of  them 
is  lacking.  The  Voice  of  Prophecy  then  appeals  to  the  despond- 
ing of  Israel,  who  cry  that  their  way  is  hid  from  God,  and  their 
judgment  a  thing  passed  away  for  ever.  Have  they  not  heard 
and  known  that  the  Creator  of  the  ends  of  the  earth  fainteth 
not,  neither  is  weary,  but  giveth  power  to  the  faint?  Even  the 
youths  shall  be  weary  and  fail ;  but  they  that  wait  upon  the  Lord 
shall  renew  their  strength  ;  they  shall  mount  up  with  wings  as 
eagles ;  they  shall  run,  and  not  be  weary ;  they  shall  walk,  and 
not  faint. 


THE  RHAPSOD  V  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED '  399 

At  this  point  the  rhapsody  becomes  dramatic  :  a  single  scenic 
action  is  sustained  for  eight  chapters,  broken  only  by  occasional 
outbursts  of  lyric  song.  The  Nations  are  summoned  to 
the  bar  of  God  to  hear  his  will  concerning  the  deliverance 
of  his  people  ;  and  the  idea  of  the  assembled  Nations,  once  raised, 
is  by  little  touches  of  allusion  kept  before  us  to  the  end.^  There 
is  no  speaker  in  this  scene  except  Jehovah  :  yet,  by  the  pendulum- 
like alternation  so  common  in  prophecy,-  and  here  seven  times  re- 
peated, God  is  presented  as  addressing  alternately  the  Nations  and 
Israel,  each  in  the  presence  of  the  other,  pronouncing  his  fore- 
ordained counsel  to  the  one,  and  proclaiming  redemption  to  the 
other.  Thus  the  assumed  presence  of  the  Nations  on  the  one  side 
and  Israel  on  the  other  completes  the  dramatic  reality  of  the  scene. 

I.  The  Nations,  away  to  the  furthest  islands  of  the  west,  are 
summoned  to  judgment :  to  hear  of  '  one  from  the  east '  raised  up 
as  an  instrument  of  righteousness,^  crushing  the  peoples 

°  ,    .  Xll.   I-20 

in  his  path ;   and  none  but  Jehovah  hath  wrought   this 
from  the  beginning.  —  A  few  verses  present  the  panic  of  the  assem- 
bling Nations  :  how  the  idolaters  enco7ira^e  one  another : 

.  5-7 

the  caipenter  cheering  the  goldsmith,  and  he  that  smooth- 
eth  with  the  hammer  hi?n  that  sfniteth  the  anvil ;  thev  look  to  the 
soldering  of  the  idols,  and  strengthen  the}?i  with  chaiiis  for  the 
coming  shock. 

As  if  in  contrast  with  such  panic,  Israel  is  summoned  with  words 
of  comfort.     He  is  the  chosen  Servant  of  Jehovah,  who  will  be 
his   Redeemer :    causing  mountains  to  be  threshed  and 
scattered  out  of  his  path,  opening  for  him  rivers  on  bare 
heights  and  fountains  in  the  midst  of  valleys,  while  the  wilderness 

1  Such  allusions  are  xli.  i,  21,  28-9;  xliii.  9-10;  xliv.  8-9;  xlv.  20;  xlviii.  6,  14. 
The  fact  that  occasionally  (xliii.  12;  xliv.  8;  xlv.  17)  in  addresses  to  the  Nations 
the  pronoun  Yot4  or  Your  is  casually  used  in  reference  to  Israel  adds  to  the  general 
effect  of  the  scene:  each  party  is  addressed  in  the  presence  of  the  other. 

-  Compare  above,  page  349. 

3  It  is  specially  important  in  this  prophecy  to  remember  the  twofold  meaning  in 
the  Old  Testament  of  the  word  'righteousness':  not  only  right  doing,  but  also 
setting  right,  vindication,  almost  the  equivalent  of  salvation.  Compare  xli.  2;  xlii. 
6 ;  xlv.  8,  13  ;  especially  li.  5 ;  and  Ivi.  i. 


400  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

blooming  with  myrtle  and  acacia  shall  signify  what  the  Holy  One 
of  Israel  hath  done  for  his  people. 

2.   The  idolatrous  Nations  are  challenged  to  dispute,  to  pro- 
duce their  cause  and  their  strong  reasons  ;  let  their  idols  declare 
things  to  come  that  their  godhead  may  be  known  ; 

xli.  2i-xliii.  8  °  &  7  ; 

let  them  do  good  or  do  evil  that  the  two  parties 

may  look  one  upon  the  other.  —  A  single  verse  conveys  the  silence 

of  the  Nations :  the  ^ods  of  their  workmanship  are  thins'S 

xli.  24  -^  ^  J  J  i, 

of  nought.  —  Then  Jehovah  produces  his  case:    he    has 

raised  up  '  one  from  the  north,'  '  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,'  to 

tread  the  Nations  like  clay,  and  make  glad  tidings  for  Zion.     Who 

but  Jehovah  hath  declared  such  counsel  from  the  beginning?  — 

Agaifi  the  7>erses  present  God  as  looking  for  an  answer 
xli.  28  9       /^  ^  ^  -^ 

from  the  Nations  and  meeting  only  silence  :  he  pronounces 

the  molten  images  vanity  and  confusion. 

The  Divine  Speaker  now  turns  to  Israel,  and  proclaims  him  to 
the  Nations  as  his  Servant :  ^  and  the  service  is  to  bring  forth  judg- 
ment to  the  Gentiles.     Not  by  force,  but  by  gentleness  : 

xlii  -I  J   o 

he  shall  not  cry  nor  shout ;  the  bruised  reed  he  shall  not 

break,  nor  quench  smoking  flax ;  but  he  shall  be  sustained  until 

he  has  become  light  and  help  to  the  peoples  of  the  earth.  —  A 

Lyric    Outburst  of  Praise   to  Jehovah  from    the  whole 
10-17 

earth :    let  them  that  go  dow7i  to  the  sea  sing,  let  Scla 

aftd  the  villages  of  Kedar  lift  up  the  voice,  let  them  shout  frotn 

the  top  of  the  mountains.    Jehovah  hath  long  kept  silence,  but  now 

will  he  cry  like  a  travailing  woman  ;  he  will  waste  mountains  and 

fnake  rioters  islands,  he  will  make  darkness  light  and  the  crooked 

straight:  and  Israel  shall  never  be  forsaken.  —  But  as  this  song 

dies  away,  the  proclamation  is  heard  to  describe  this 

Servant  of  Jehovah  as  blind,  as  deaf,  as  hid  in  prison 

houses,  and  only  now  perceiving  that  it  is  He  against  whom  the 

1  It  seems  to  me  impossible  to  understand  the  '  Servant '  of  these  verses  (xlii. 
1-9)  otherwise  than  as  the  nation  of  Israel.  No  one  doubts  that  the  '  Servant'  of 
verses  18-25  is  Israel :  but  these  verses  are  a  continuation  of  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter,  verses  10-17  being  one  of  the  lyric  interruptions  that  occur  at  intervals 
and  are  outside  the  argument. 


THE  RIIAPSOD  V   OF  '  Z/O.V  REDEEMED '  401 

people  has  sinned  that  has  given  Israel  for  a  spoil.  Yet  now  his 
Maker  has  become  his  Redeemer.  "  When  thou  passest  through 
the  waters  I  will  be  with  thee  ;  and  through  the  rivers,  they  shall 
not  overflow  thee."  The  Holy  One  of  Israel  is  his  saviour :  he 
has  given  Egypt  for  ransom,  and  Ethiopia  and  Seba ;  he  will  say 
to  the  north,  Give  up,  and  to  the  south,  Keep  not  back ;  and  the 
imprisoning  nations  shall  bring  them  forth,  a  blind  people  that 
hath  eyes,  a  deaf  people  that  hath  ears. 

3.  The  alternation  of  pleading  continues.  The  assembled 
Nations  are  again  challenged  to  bring  witnesses,  to  show  the  fore- 
seeing of  counsel  from  of  old.     Their  silence  makes 

.         .        xliii.  9-xliv.  5 

them  witnesses  for  Jehovah,  and  Israel  too  is  wit- 
ness.    There  is  no  god  but  Jehovah,  and  he  is  the  only  saviour. 

Then  to  Israel  their  Creator  and  King  tells  how  for  their  sake 
Babylon  has  been  visited.  The  former  deliverance  from  Egypt 
shall  no  more  be  remembered;  a  new  thing  shall  be 
done,  a  way  opened  in  the  wilderness,  and  rivers  in  the 
desert.  Yet  Israel  hath  not  called  upon  the  Lord ;  hath  wearied 
him  with  sins  and  not  with  sacrifices.  Jehovah  will  blot  out  his 
transgressions  for  his  own  sake.  Water  shall  be  poured  upon  the 
thirsty,  and  streams  upon  the  dry  ground  ;  the  seed  of  Jacob  shall 
spring  up  among  the  grass,  as  willows  by  the  watercourses.  "  One 
shall  say,  I  am  the  Lord's  ;  and  another  shall  call  himself  by  the 
name  of  Jacob ;  and  another  shall  subscribe  with  his  hand  unto 
the  Lord,  and  surname  himself  by  the  name  of  Israel." 

4.  Again  Jehovah  asserts  his  godhead,  and  pours  scorn  on  the 
gods  of  the  Nations.  He  is  the  first,  and  he  is  the  last,  and 
beside   him    there  is  no  God,  there  is  no  Rock. 

The  fashioners  of  graven  images  are  plunged  in 

confusion :  the  delectable  things  their  work  has  created  cannot 

witness  for  them  to  save  them  from  shame. 

The  smith  maketh  an  axe,  and  worketh  in  the  coals,  and  fashioneth 
it  with  hammers,  and  worketh  it  with  his  strong  arm :  yea,  he  is 
hungry,  and  his  strength  faileth;  he  drinketh  no  water,  and  is  faint. 
The  carpenter  stretcheth  out  a  line;   he  marketh  it  out  with  a  pencil; 


402  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

he  shapeth  it  with  planes,  and  he  marketh  it  out  with  the  compasses, 
and  shapeth  it  after  the  figure  of  a  man,  according  to  the  beauty  of 
a  man,  to  dwell  in  the  house.  He  heweth  him  down  cedars,  and 
taketh  the  holm  tree  and  the  oak,  and  strengtheneth  for  himself  one 
among  the  trees  of  the  forest :  he  planteth  a  fir  tree,  and  the  rain 
doth  nourish  it.  Then  shall  it  be  for  a  man  to  burn;  and  he  taketh 
thereof,  and  warmeth  himself;  yea,  he  kindleth  it,  and  baketh  bread  : 
yea,  he  maketh  a  god,  and  worshippeth  it :  he  maketh  it  a  graven 
image,  and  falleth  down  thereto.  He  burneth  part  thereof  in  the 
fire;  with  part  thereof  he  eateth  flesh;  he  roasteth  roast,  and  is  sat- 
isfied :  yea,  he  warmeth  himself,  and  saith.  Aha,  I  am  warm,  I  have 
seen  the  fire :  and  the  residue  thereof  he  maketh  a  god,  even  his 
graven  image :  he  falleth  down  unto  it  and  worshippeth,  and  prayeth 
unto  it,  and  saith,  Deliver  me;   (or  thou  art  my  god. 

So  the  worshipper  of  idols  feeds  upon  ashes,  with  none  to  show 
him  how  his  deceived  heart  has  led  him  astray,  till  he  cannot  see 
the  lie  in  his  right  hand. 

But  not  so  with    Israel :   theirs  is  not  a  made   God,  but   the 
Maker  of  his  people.     And  he  has  now  redeemed  them, 

Xhv.  21  .  '        . 

blotting  out  as  a  thick  cloud  their  transgressions,  and 
as  a  cloud  their  sins. 

Sing,  O  ye  heavens. 

For  the  LORD  hath  done  it ; 

Shout,  ye  loioer  parts  of  the  earth; 

Break  forth  into  singing,  ye  mountains , 

O  forest,  and  every  tree  therein  : 

For  the  Lord  hath  redeemed  yacob. 
And  will  glorify  himself  in  Israel, 

Then  thus  saith  to  Israel  his  Redeemer,  he  who  stretcheth  out 
the  heavens,  he  who  frustrateth  the  tokens  of  liars,  and  maketh 
diviners  mad  :  Cyrus  is  his  Shepherd,  and  shall  perform  all  his 
pleasure,  even  saying  of  Jerusalem,  She  shall  be  built. 

5.   To  the  Nations  Jehovah  proclaims  Cyrus  as  his  anointed, 

commissioned  to  do  his  work,  for  which  the  way 

shall  be  smoothed  before  him.     Jehovah  hath  sur- 

named  Cyrus,  though  Cyrus  hath  not  known  him.     The  authority 


THE  RHAPSODY   OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  403 

of  the  proclamation  is  maintained  :  Jehovah  is  he  who  is  the 
creator  of  hght  and  of  darkness,  peace  and  evil  are  alike  his 
instruments. 

Drop  dozvit,  ye  heavens,  from  above. 

And  let  the  skies  pour  down  righteousness  : 
Let  the  earth  open,  that  they  may  be  fruitful  in  salvation^ 

And  let  her  cause  righteousness  to  spring  itp^gether. 

Shall  not  the  work  of  the  hands  be  used  by  him  that  has  wrought 
it?  Therefore  the  Creator  of  man  has  raised  up  Cyrus  as  an 
instrument  of  righteousness.  For  this  shall  the  labour  of  Egypt, 
and  the  merchandise  of  Ethiopia,  and  the  Sabeans,  men  of  stature, 
come  over  unto  him,  accepting  his  bonds  because  of  the  God  that 
is  hidden  in  him  :  "  Verily  thou  art  a  God  that  hidest  thyself,  O 
God  of  Israel,  the  Saviour."  And  let  the  assembled  Nations  know 
that  there  is  no  saviour  but  Jehovah  :  to  Him  must  the  ends  of  the 
earth  look,  and  to  Him  every  knee  bow.  His  enemies  shall  be 
covered  with  confusion  :  and  a  few  words  of  the  Divine  Speaker 
call  up  a  picture  of  the  idols  of  Babylon  borne  away  into  captivity, 
Bel  bowing  down  over  one  beast,  and  another  beast  groaning  under 
the  weight  of  Nebo  laid  flat  across  him. 

Then,  with  a  sudden  turn,  the  Speaker  addresses  Israel :  their 
God  is  not  a  god  to  be  borne  in  his  people's  arms,  but 

°  xlvi.  3 

in  his  arms  has  their  God  carried  his  people,  from  the 

womb  he  has  borne  them,  and  even  to  hoar  hairs  shall  they  be 

carried. 

6.   The  proclamation  before  the  Nations  is  resumed.     The  one 
God,  whom  no  helpless   idols   can  equal,  whose   is  the  counsel 
that  is  seen  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  will  do 
his  pleasure:    he   calls  a  ravenous  bird  from  the   ^ '*'"•  5-x  vm. 
east  to  execute  his  counsel,  and  his  salvation  shall 
no  longer  tarry.  —  At  once  a  lyric  outburst  calls  iaunthigly  to  the 
virgin  daughter  of  Bahxlon  to  come  down  and  sit  ifi  the 
dust,  to  sit  on   the  ground  itnthout  a  throne ;  to  cover 
herself  with  shame ;  to  sit  silent,  to  get  /ler  into  darkness,  for  she 


4(H  BIBLICAL    LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

sliall  no  more  be  called  the  lady  of  kingdoms.  —  The  Divine 
Speaker  reminds  Babylon  of  her  cruelty  to  the  captives 
of  the  Lord,  and  her  careless  confidence.  Now  all  her 
losses  shall  come  upon  her  at  once,  the  day  of  evil  breaking  with- 
out any  dawn  to  go  before  it ;  and  all  her  astrologers,  and  star- 
gazers,  and  monthly  prognosticators  shall  be  as  stubble ;  there 
shall  be  none  to  save. 

Upon  Israeftoo  the  Divine  rebuke  falls  :  upon  those  who  swear 
by  the  name  of  Jehovah,  and  make  mention  of  the  God  of  Israel, 
but  not  in  truth  nor  in  righteousness.  Because  of  the 
iron  sinew  in  their  neck,  and  their  brow  of  brass,  has 
Jehovah  told  them  the  thing  before  it  come  to  pass,  lest  they 
should  say  their  idol  had  done  it.  From  the  womb  they  have 
been  a  transgressor,  but  for  his  name's  sake  God  will  defer  his 
anger.  He  has  refined  Israel,  but  not  as  silver ;  He  has  tried  him 
in  the  furnace  of  affliction,  —  He,  the  first  and  last,  whose  glory 
shall  not  be  given  to  another. 

7.  For  the  seventh  and  last  time  in  this  High  Court  of 
Heaven  and  Earth  God  turns  to  the  assembled  Nations.^  He 
whom  Jehovah  loveth  shall  perform  his  pleasure 
on  Babylon,  and  his  way  shall  be  made  pros- 
perous. The  Nations  are  bidden  to  listen,  and  already  the 
voice  of  Jehovah's  agent  is  heard  :  "  From  the  time  that  it  was, 
there  am  I :  and  now  the  Lord  God  hath  sent  me,  and  his 
spirit." 

It  remains   to   turn  for  the  last  time  to  Israel,  that  they  may 

know  their  redeemer,  who  leads  them  by  the  way  they  should  go. 

"  Oh  that  thou  hadst  hearkened  to  my  commandments  ! 

xlviii.  17       ,  ,      ,     ,  ,  1     I         ■    1 

then  had  thy  peace  been  as  a  river,  and  thy  righteousness 
as  the  waves  of  the  sea."  The  scene  of  judgment  ends  with  a  cry 
to  go  forth  out  of  Babylon,  that  the  whole  earth  may  ring  with  a 

1  We  have  thus  a  sevenfold  division  of  this,  which  is  one  of  seven  '  Piiases '  of 
the  Rhapsody.  Similarly  the  natural  divisions  of  j^ob,  Joel  and  Solomon's  Sinig 
were  found  to  be  seven  (see  in  the  Literary  Index).  On  the  other  liand,  five  seems 
to  be  the  favourite  number  in  Wisdom  literature  :  five  books  in  Proverbs  and 
Ecclesiasliciis,  five  Essays  in  Ecclesiastes  and  five  Discourses  in  Wisdom. 


THE   RHAPSODY   OF  '  ZION  KE DEEMED'  -105 

cry  of  Jacob,  the  Lord's  Servant,  redeemed,  and  a  second  time 
led  through  the  desert,  while  waters  gush  from  the  rock  to  quench 
his  thirst.^ 

Phase  II 

The  second  Phase  presents  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  commencing 
the  ministry  proclaimed  for  him  in  the  previous -scenes. 
This  Servant  is  distinctly  called  the  nation  Israel :  but  it 
is  Israel  reforming  Israel,  a  nation  with  a  mission  to  itself  as  well 
as  to  those  outside. 

Listen,  O  isles,  unto  me;  and  hearken,  ye  peoples,  from  far:  the 
Lord  hath  called  me  from  the  womb;  from  the  bowels  of  my  mother 
hath  he  made  mention  of  my  name :  and  he  hath  made  my  mouth 
like  a  sharp  sword,  in  the  shadow  of  his  hand  hath  he  hid  me;  and 
he  hath  made  me  a  polished  shaft,  in  his  quiver  hath  he  kept  me 
close:  and  he  said  unto  me,  Thou  art  my  servant;  Israel,  in  whom 
I  will  be  glorified.  But  I  said,  I  have  laboured  in  vain,  I  have  spent 
my  strength  for  nought  and  vanity. 

Then  he  speaks  of  the  new  commission  which  has  roused  him  from 
such  despondency. 

He  saith.  It  is  too  light  a  thing  that  thou  shouldest  be  my  servant  to 
raise  up  the  tribes  of  Jacob,  and  to  restore  the  preserved  of  Israel: 
I  will  also  give  thee  for  a  light  to  the  Gentiles,  that  thou  mayest  l)e 
my  salvation  unto  the  end  of  the  earth. 

As  an  opening  of  his  commission  he  proclaims  the  salvation  that 
is  to  bring  Israel  -  the  despised,  the  servant  of  rulers  —  and  make 
him  inherit  desolate  heritages.  The  captives  shall  feed  in  the 
ways,  and  on  all  bare  heights  shall  be  their  pasture  ;  they  shall 
not  hunger  nor  thirst,  neither  shall  the  heat  nor  sun  smite  them  : 

1  The  concluding  words,  "  There  is  no  peace,  saith  the  Lord,  unto  the  wicked," 
I  understand  as  a  prolonged  Amen,  or  pious  ejaculation  of  a  scribe,  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  section,  without  a  place  in  the  immediate  context.  Compare  Isaiah  ii.  22, 
and  Ivii.  21 ;  and  the  doxologies  ending  the  first  four  books  of  Psalms. 


406  BIBLICAL   LITEKATURE    OF  PKOI'IIECY 

for  he  that   hath  mercy  on  them  shall  lead  them,  even  by  the 
springs  of  water  shall  he  guide  them. 

Sing^  O  heavens  ; 

And  be  joyful,  O  earth  ; 

And  break  forth  into  singing,  O  mountains  : 
For  the  LORD  hath  comforted  his  people. 
Arid  will  have  compassion  upon  his  afflicted. 

The  voice  of  Desponding  Zion  is  heard  :  this  with  the  responses 
of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  makes  a  change  to  dialogue.  She 
cries  that  Jehovah  has  forsaken  her.  —  Can  a  woman 
forget  her  sucking  child?  Behold,  she  is  graven  on  the 
palms  of  the  Lord's  hands  :  her  waste  places  shall  be  built,  and 
the  children  of  her  bereavement  shall  yet  throng  until  the  place  is 
too  strait  for  its  inhabitants.  —  But  how  shall  the  barren  and  the 
exile  bring  forth  new  inhabitants? — Kings  shall  be  her  nursing- 
fathers,  and  queens  her  nursing-mothers  :  they  shall  bring  her 
children  in  their  bosoms.  —  Zion  is  still  incredulous  :  shall  the 
prey  be  taken  from  the  mighty? — Mighty  is  He  that  contendeth 
for  her  :  is  Jehovah's  hand  shortened  ?  have  the  children  of  God 
been  disinherited? 

The  discourse  passes  back  into  a  soliloquy  of  Jehovah's  Servant : 
and  here  the  Servant  appears  to  take  more  individual  form.  The 
Lord  hath  given  him  the  tongue  of  the  taught  that  he 
might  know  how  to  sustain  with  words  him  that  is  weary  ; 
morning  by  morning  his  ear  is  wakened  to  the  Divine  word.  And 
he  has  not  been  rebellious  :  he  has  given  his  back  to  the  smiters, 
and  his  cheeks  to  them  that  pulled  off  the  hair ;  he  hid  not  his 
face  from  shame  and  spitting  :  for  He  that  justifieth  him  is  near. 
And  already  he  is  become  a  judgment  to  those  about  him,  to 
separate  between  those  who  obey  his  voice,  even  though  they  walk 
in  darkness,  and  those  who  kindle  a  fire,  and  gird  themselves 
about  with  firebrands  :  these  he  leaves  to  walk  in  the  flame  of 
their  fire,  and  among  the  brands  they  have  kindled  ;  this  only 
they  have  from  him,  that  they  shall  lie  down  in  sorrow. 


THE   RHAPSOD  Y   OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED '  407 

Phase  III 

The  third  Phase,  in  a  mystical  dramatic  mode  of  realisation  only 
possible  in  so  spiritual  a  literary  form  as  the  rhapsody, 
presents  the  gradual  Awakening  of  Zion  under  reiterated 
calls  from  God  and  the  Celestial  Hosts. 

Jehovah  crieth  to  his  people  that  seek  him  to  look  to  their 
past  and  take  comfort :  to  look  unto  the  rock  whence  they  were 
hewn,  and  to  the  hole  of  the  pit  whence  they  were  digged.  For 
the  waste  places  of  Zion  shall  again  be  as  Eden  :  joy  and  gladness 
shall  be  found  therein,  thanksgiving,  and  the  voice  of  melody.  — 
IVo  7-esponse. 

Jehovah  crieth  comfort  to  his  people  from  their  glorious  future  : 
his  righteousness  is  near,  his  salvation  is  gone  forth.  The  heavens 
shall  vanish  away  like  smoke,  and  the  earth  wax  old  like  a  gar- 
ment, but  his  salvation  shall  stand  fast  for  ever.  —  No  respo?ise. 

Jehovah  comforteth  his  people  against  the  reproach  of  men. 
For  there  the  moth  shall  eat  like  a  garment,  the  worm  shall  eat 
them  like  wool :  but  his  righteousness  shall  be  for  ever. 

■The  Celestial  Chorus  encourage  Jehovah  :  calling  to  the  Arm 
of  the  Lord  to  awake  as  in  the  days  of  old,  when  Egypt  was  cut 
in  pieces,  and  the  sea  became  a  pathway  for  the  redeemed.  And 
the  ransomed  of  the  Lord  shall  again  come  with  singing  to  Zion, 
everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads. 

Jehovah  yet  again  comforteth  his  people  :  will  they  fear  man 
that  shall  die,  and  the  son  of  man  which  shall  be  as  grass,  when 
the  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth  has  said  that  the  captive  exiles 
shall  speedily  be  loosed  ?  For  it  is  he  who  ruleth  the  sea  that 
hath  put  his  words  in  their  mouth  and  covered  them  with  the 
shadow  of  his  hand.  —  No  response. 

The  Celestial  Chorus  join  in  the  cry  to  Jerusalem  to  awake,  to 
stand  up  :  she  has  drunk  of  the  cup  of  staggering,  and  there  has 
been  none  among  all  her  sons  to  guide  her.  Therefore  has  Jeho- 
vah taken  out  of  her  hand  the  cup  of  staggering,  and  put  it  into 
the  hands  of  them  that  afflict  her.  —  Ah>  response. 


40S  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OE  PROPHECY 

The  Celestial  Chorus  reiterate  the  cry  to  Zion  to  awake,  to  put 
on  her  strength,  to  put  on  her  garments  of  beauty,  shaking  herself 
from  the  dust.  For  Jehovah  hath  said,  she  was  sold  for  nought, 
and  without  money  shall  she  be  redeemed,  and  shall  know  that  it 
is  he,  even  Jehovah,  who  hath  done  it. 

At  last  the  awakening  of  Zion  seems  to  begin.  Beautiful  upon 
the  distant  mountains  are  seen  the  feet  of  messengers  bringing 
;.  good  tidings  of  good,  publishers  of  salvation.  —  Now  the 

watchmen  of  Zion  have  caught  the  word  :  they  lift  up  the 
voice  :  no  discordant  notes,  they  see  eye  to  eye  how  Jehovah  is 
returning  to  Zion.  :=—  Now  the  waste  places  of  Jerusalem  break 
forth  into  joy,  they  sing  together  that  the  Lord  hath  redeemed 
Jerusalem.  —  Now  the  Lord's  arm  is  made  bare  that  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  can  behold  his  salvation  :  and  awakened  Zion  can  see, 
as  if  present,  the  bearers  of  the  sacred  vessels  departing  out  of 
Babylon,  careful  that  no  unclean  thing  mar  their  sacred  office,  and 
passing  on  with  the  God  of  Israel  for  their  rearward. 

Phase  IV 

We  have  reached  the  fourth  and  central  Phase  of  the  Rhap- 
sody :    the  brief  section  which  seems  to  stand  out  from  the  rest 
like  the  keystone  of  an  arch,  and  presents  the  Servant 
of    Jehovah    prosperous    and    highly    exalted,    to    the 
astonishment  of  the  nations  that  had  despised  his  marred  visage, 
his  form  marred   more  than  the  sons  of  men.     The  Chorus  ot 
Nations,  in  a  lyric  song  of  gradually  augmenting  stanzas, 
express  their  astonishment  at  that  which  they  can  hardly 
believe  ;  and  bring  out  the  mystery  of  a  personality  whose  suffer- 
ings have  been  a  bearing  of  the  sufferings  of  others.     Which  of  us 
(they  ask)  believed  that  which  we  heard,  or  recognised  the  Lord's 
hand,  when  we  saw  him  grow  up  as  a  root  out  of  a  dry  ground, 
without    form   or   comeliness,    despised   and    rejected   of    men? 
Surely  he  hath  borne  our  griefs,  and  been  wounded  for  our  trans- 
gressions, when  we  esteemed  him  smitten  of  God  and  afflicted ; 


THE   RHAPSODY   OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  409 

we  were  the  sheep  that  had  gone  astray,  and  the  Lord  laid  on 
him  the  inicjuity  of  us  all.  In  oppression  he  humbled  himself; 
led  as  a  lamb  to  slaughter  he  opened  not  his  mouth  ;  who  of  his 
generation  considered  that  he  was  cut  off  from  the  land  of  the 
living,  stricken  for  the  people's  transgression?  Yet  it  pleased 
Jehovah  to  put  him  to  grief:  but  he  shall  see  of  the  travail  of  his 
soul  and  be  satisfied,  and  by  knowledge  of  him  shall  the  righteous 
Servant  make  many  righteous. 


Phase  V 

From  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  in  his  glory  we  pass  to  Zion  ex- 
alted.    The  fifth  Phase  of  the  Rhapsody  is  a  series  of 

liv-lv 

Songs  for  Zion  in  her  Exaltation.     The  first  Song  cele- 
brates Zion  as  Jehovah's  Bride  :  "Thy  maker  is  thy  husband,  the 
Lord  of  hosts  is  his  name." 

For  a  small  moment  have  I  forsaken  thee; 

But  with  great  mercies  will  1  gather  thee. 
In  overflowing  wrath 

I  hid  my  face  from  thee  for  a  moment; 
But  with  everlasting  kindness 

Will  I  have  mercy  upon  thee. 

Like  the  rainbow  pledge  of  old  to  Noah  is  this  new  covenant. 

For  the  mountains  shall  depart, 

And  the  hills  be  removed; 
But  my  kindness  shall  not  depart  from  thee, 

Neither  shall  my  covenant  of  peace  be  removed. 

The  second  Song  depicts  Zion  as  a  city  of  beauty  :  her  foun- 
dations of  sapphires  and  pinnacles  of  rubies,  her  gates  of  car- 
buncles, and  all  her  border  of  pleasant  stones.  Zion  is  impreg- 
nable as  she  is  beautiful :  terror  shall  not  come  nigh  her ;  no 
weapon  formed  against  her  shall  prosper. 

The  third  Song  presents  Zion  calling  to  the  nations  with  offers 
of  a  free  covenant. 


410  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

Ho,  every  one  that  thirsteth,  come  ye  to  the  waters, 

And  he  that  hath  no  money; 
Come  ye,  buy,  and  eat; 
Yea,  come,  buy  wine  and  milk 

Without  money  and  without  price. 

Zion  recites  the  sure  mercies  of  David  given  to  hA  as  a  covenant, 
and  how  she  is  to  be  a  leader  of  the  peoples,  calling  to  her  nations 
she  knows  not.  The  fourth  Song  makes  the  invitation 
more  urgent :  bidding  seek  the  Lord  while  he  may  be 
found,  the  wicked  forsaking  his  way  and  the  unrighteous  man  his 
thoughts,  and  turning  to  the  Lord  who  will  abundantly  pardon. 
For  as  the  heavens  are  higher  tlian  the  earth,  so  is  Jehovah's 
abundance  of  mercy;  and  his  word  gone  forth  shall  no  more 
return  empty  than  the  rain  shall  descend  to  the  earth  without 
causing  it  to  bud  and  bring  forth. 

Ye  shall  go  out  with  joy. 

And  be  led  forth  with  peace : 
The  mountains  and  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing, 

And  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands. 
Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up  the  fir  tree. 

And  instead  of  the  brier  shall  come  up  the  myrtle  tree: 
And  it  shall  be  to  the  Lord  for  a  name, 

For  an  everlasting  sign  that  shall  not  be  cut  off. 


Phase  VI 

The  sixth  section  is  long,  and  in  parts  obsq^jrev  As  a  whole  if: 
presents  the  work  of  redemption  exercised  upon  Zion.  It  therefore 
stands  appropriately  before  the  final;  judgment  that  is  to- 
exalt  a  purified  Zion  amid  the  overthrow  of  the  nations. 
But  the  redeeming  work  is  an  ideal  picture  that  belongs  to  all 
periods  of  the  nation's  history,  and  it  must  not  be  limited  to  the 
restored  exiles  any  more  than  it  must  be  referred  to  the  sin  pre- 
ceding exile ;  sin  and  redemption  from  sin  have  belonged  to  every 
period  of  Israel's  history,  and  the  return  of  sons  and  daughters  to 
the  City  of  Salvation  is  but  a  main  incident  used  as  a  universal 


'THE  RHAPSODY   OF  'ZfON  REDEEMED'  411 

image.  The  relation  of  this  sixth  Phase  to  the  section  that  follows 
and  the  sections  that  precede  is  reflected  in  the  opening  words  of 
the  Servant  of  Jehovah.  Playing  upon  the  two  meanings  of  the 
word  he  enjoins  righteousness  —  that  is,  doing  right  — 
because  of  the  near  approach  of  God's  righteousness  — 
that  is,  setting  right,  judgment  and  salvation.  Then,  with  refer- 
ences back  to  the  Babylonian  exile  which  has  inspired  so  much  in 
the  preceding  sections,  he  speaks  invitations  to  the  stranger,  and 
to  the  physically  maimed,  to  join  the  Lord's  people  :  the  Lord's 
house  shall  be  called  an  house  of  prayer  for  all  peoples. 

Then  the  Act  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  a  series  of  pictures,  in 
which  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  is  seen  at  his  work  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  the   people.     The   first  picture  is  one  of 

11  ■  11     1       1  r   Ivi-  9-lviii 

unmeasured  national  corruption  :  all  the  beasts  oi 

the  field  coming  to  devour,  and  the  watchmen  blind  —  dumb  dogs 
that  cannot  bark,  dreaming,  lying  down,  loving  to  slumber ;  mean- 
while the  righteous  are  perishing  unheeded,  with  none  to  mark 
the  lesson  of  their  death.     Suddenly  the  faithful  Servant  is  among 
them  :   denouncing  the  sons  of  the  sorceress,  unmasking 
the  abominations  of  the  grove  and  murderous  sacrifices 
of    the   rock   valleys,    exposing   the   apostasy   of  the  adulterous 
nation,  and  the  depths   of  debasement  to  which   they  will  de- 
scend in  seeking  any  protector  rather  than  their  God.     A  second 
picture  presents  a  different  type  of  national  character  : 
a  people  that  wearies  with  the  length  of  the   way,  yet 
says  not.  There  is  no  hope  :  it  finds  a  mysterious  quickening  of 
its  strength,   and,   blind  of  heart,  looks  about    to    every  source 
rather  than  the  true  one  to   explain   the   support  it  feels.     But 
suddenly  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  is  seen  smoothing  the 
way  before   them,   casting    up   the   hollows    and    taking 
stumbling-blocks  away,  while  he  proclaims  that  the  high  and  lofty 
One  that   inhabiteth   eternity  dwells    also  with   the  contrite  and 
humble  spirit,  not  contending  for  ever,  lest  the  spirit  faint  away, 
but  restoring  comforts  after  the  iniquity  has  been  chastised.     A 
third  picture  is  of  those  who  love  righteous  ordinances  and  de- 


412  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OE  PROPHECY 

light  to  draw  near  unto  God ;  but  they  ask,  Wherefore  have  we 
fasted,  and  God  seeth  not?  To  these  the  faithful  Servant 
explains  how  they  fast  for  contention  and  for  their  own 
pleasure.  Is  this  the  fast  that  the  Lord  has  chosen,  that  a  man 
should  afflict  his  soul,  and  bow  down  his  head  like  a  rush,  and 
spread  sackcloth  and  ashes  under  his  feet?  Is  not  this  the  fast 
acceptable  to  the  Lord,  to  loose  the  bonds  of  wickedness,  and 
let  the  oppressed  go  free,  to  deal  bread  to  the  hungry,  and  cover 
the  naked,  and  that  thou  hide  not  thyself  from  thine  own  flesh? 
Then  shall  thy  light  break  forth  as  the  morning ;  thy  righteous- 
ness shall  go  before  thee  and  the  glory  of  Jehovah  be  thy  rear- 
ward. 

Then,  all  the  several  pictures  growing  together  into  one,  we 
have  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  identifying  himself  with  the  nation, 
and  preaching  that  the  Lord's  hand  is  not  shortened  that 
it  cannot  save,  but  iniquities  have  come  between  the  peo- 
ple and  its  God,  until  they  grope  like  the  blind,  and  stumble  at 
noonday ;  until  judgment  is  turned  away  backward,  and  truth 
fallen  in  the  streets.  And  the  Lord  saw  it,  and  it  displeased  him 
that  there  was  no  judgment,  and  none  to  interpose  ;  wherefore  his 
own  arm  wrought  salvation.  He  put  on  righteousness  as  a  breast- 
plate, and  a  helmet  of  salvation  on  his  head ;  he  clothed  himself 
with  garments  of  vengeance,  and  was  clad  with  zeal  as  a  cloak : 
and  he  shall  come  like  a  rushing  stream,  which  the  breath  of  the 
Lord  driveth.     Thus  a  Redeemer  shall  come  to  Zion. 

At  once  the  lyric  songs  break  out,  bidding  Zion  arise,  shine,  for 
her  light  is  come.  Darkness  shall  cover  the  earth,  and  gross  dark- 
ness the  peoples  :  but  Jehovah  shall  arise  upon  Zion,  atid 
nations  shall  be  dratvn  to  her  light,  and  kings  to  the  bright- 
ness of  her  sunrise.  Her  heart  sliall  be  enlarged  and  tremble  as 
she  beholds  the  multitudes  of  camels,  the  ships  plying  as  doves  to  the 
windows,  all  bringing  her  sons  and  daughters  from  afar.  Her 
gates  shall  be  open  day  and  night  as  the  wealth  of  nations  flows 
into  her.  Violence  shall  not  be  heard  in  her  land ;  her  officers 
shall  be  peace,  and  her  exactors  righteousness  ;  her  walls  shall  be 


THE   RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  413 

called  Salvation,  and  her  gates,  Praise  :  and  her  sun  shall  no  )nore 
go  down,  for  it  shall  be  Jehovah,  an  everlasting  light. 

The  lyric  outburst  subsides  into  a  soliloquy  of  Jehovah's  Servant 
upon   his  glorious   task   of  preaching  good  tidings  to  the  meek, 
binding  up   the   broken-hearted,  opening  the  prison  to 
them  that  are  bound,  proclaiming  the  day  of  God's  ven- 
geance, and  appointing  to  the  mourners  of  Zion  the  garment  of 
praise  for  the  spirit  of  heaviness.     He  turns  even  then  to 
speak  words  of  promise  to  Zion,  and  Zion,  no  longer  de- 
sponding, rejoices  in  the  Lord  who  has  covered  her  with  the  robe 
of  righteousness  as  a  bride  is  adorned  with  jewels.     The  Servant, 
in  response,  will  for  Zion's  sake  know  no  peace  until  her 
righteousness  shine  before  all  kings.    She  shall  be  named 
no  longer  Desolate,  Forsaken  :  her  land  shall  be  Beulah,  for  her 
sons  shall  marry  it,  and  her  God  shall  rejoice  over  her  as  a  bride- 
groom rejoices  over  his  bride.    Then  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  cries 
to  the  Watchmen  he  has  set  upon  the  walls  to  give  the  Lord  no 
rest  until  he   fulfil  his  word  to  Zion.     The  section  ends  with  a 
Chorus  of  Watchmen,  who  cry  to  go  through  the  gates, 

•  1  11  •  \^\\.   10 

to  clear  the  way,  to  lift  up  the  ensign  that  all  nations 
can   see :    for    the    Lord's   proclamation    of   salvation   has    been 
made  to  the  end  of  the  earth,  and  soon  the  name  of  Jerusalem 
will  be  the  City  Sought  out. 


Phase  VII 

The  seventh  Phase  is  to  bring  the  final  Judgment,  to  which  so 
much  of  what  precedes  has  been  pointing.     Its  keynote 
is  struck  by  a  Dramatic  Vision  of  Judgment. 

He   who    WATCIIETH 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  Edom, 

With  crimsoned  garments  from  Bozrah? 
This  that  is  glorious  in  his  apparel, 

Marching  in  the  greatness  of  his  strength? 


414  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

He   who    COMETH 

I  that  speak  in  righteousness, 
Mighty  to  save. 

He  who  watcheth 

Wherefore  art  thou  red 

In  thine  apparel, 

And  thy  garments 
Like  him  that  treadeth  in  the  winefat? 

He  who    COMETH 

I  have  trodden  the  winepress  alone; 

And  of  the  peoples  there  was  no  man  with  me : 

Yea,  I  trod  them  in  mine  anger, 

And  trampled  thern  in  my  fury  ; 

And  their  lifeblood  is  sprinkled  upon  my  garments. 

And  I  have  stained  all  my  raiment. 
For  the  day  of  vengeance  was  in  mine  heart, 
And  the  year  of  my  redeemed  is  come. 
And  I  looked,  and  there  was  none  to  help; 
And  I  wondered  that  there  was  none  to  uphold : 
Therefore  mine  own  arm  brought  salvation  unto  me; 
And  my  fury,  it  upheld  me. 

And  I  trod  down  the  peoples  in  mine  anger, 

And  made  them  drunk  in  my  fury. 

And  I  poured  out  their  lifeblood  on  the  earth. 

Then  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  speaks,  and  gathers  the  whole 
national  history   into   a  Uturgy   of  thanksgiving,   confession,  and 
suppUcation  for  judgment.     He  makes  beginning 
xm.  7-   IV  ^.^^  ^^  lovingkindnesses   of  the   Lord  :    he   was 

the  saviour  of  his  people,  in  all  their  afflictions  he  was  afflicted, 
and  the  angel  of  his  presence  saved  them.  But  they  were  rebel- 
lious, and  grieved  his  holy  spirit ;  until  he  was  turned  to  be  their 
enemy  and  himself  fought  against  them.  Under  his  wrath  have 
they  become  as  the  heathen  ;  they  have  been  delivered  into  tlie 
power  of  their  iniquities  ;  they  have  faded  like  a  leaf  which  the 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  415 

wind  of  their  iniquities  driveth  about.  Tlie  holy  cities  have 
become  a  wilderness,  Jerusalem  a  desolation  ;  the  holy  and  beau- 
tiful house  where  the  fathers  worshipped  God  is  burned  with  fire. 
Yet  is  Jehovah  their  father,  though  Abraham  know  them  not,  and 
Israel  refuse  to  acknowlege  them.  Oh  that  God  would  rend  the 
heavens,  and  come  down,  that  the  mountains  might  flow  down  at 
his  presence  ! 

The   response    comes  in  the  judgment,  that   finally   separates 
between  the  holy  and  the  evil :  and  the  concluding  phase 

Ixv-lxvi 

of  the  rhapsody  is  the  pendulum  movement  swinging  to 
and  fro  between  vengeance  and  glad  salvation. 

The  rebellious,  walking  in  their  own  way,  and  provoking  God 
with  their  abominations  —  their  works  shall  be  recompensed  into 
their    own    bosoms.     But  there  shall  be    a   seed  out  of 
Jacob ;   the  Lord's  chosen  shall  inherit  his   mountains ;        '    ' 
Sharon  shall  be  a  fold  of  flocks,  and  the  valley  of  Achor  a  place 
for  herds  to  lie  down  in.     But  those   that   prepare   a  table   to 
Fortune  and  pour  Hbations    to   Destiny,   destined  shall 
they  be  to  the  fortune  of  the  sword  :  they  shall  perish, 
and  leave  only  a  name  to  curse  by.     But  he  that  blesseth  himself 
shall  bless  himself  by  the  God  of  Truth,  for  joy  of  the  new  heaven 
and  the  new  earth,  and  the  Holy  Mountain  in  which  the  seed  of 
the  blessed  shall  forget  their  troubles.     For  the  Lord's  dwelling  is 
not  in  a  builded  house,  but  in  the  poor  and  contrite  spirit.     But 
they  that  choose  their  own  ways,  and   delight  in  their 
own  abominations,  shall  find  Jehovah  also  choosing  their 
delusions,  and  bringing  their  fears  upon  them.     They  persecute 
the  fearers  of  the  Lord,  and  challenge  the  Lord  to  glorify  himself: 
—  a  shout  from  the  city,  a  shout  of  Jehovah  that  maketh  recom- 
pense.    But  Zion  cannot  understand  her  deliverance,  for  before 
she  has  travailed  she  has  brought  forth.     And  Jerusalem  and  her 
lovers    rejoice   together,  her  peace  flowing   like  a    livcr. 
While  Jehovah  shall  come  in  fire  and  chariots  of  whirl- 
wind to  rebuke  his  enemies  in  the  midst  of  their  abominations  : 
and  a  standard  shall  be  set  up,  that  all  nations  and  tongues  can 


416  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

see  the  Lord's  glory,  et'en  to  the  isles  afar  off  that  have  not  heard 
his  fame.  And  out  of  all  nations  shall  they  bring  the 
brethren  of  Zion  as  an  offering  unto  the  Lord,  and  the 

seed  of  Lsrael  shall  be  before  the  Lord  as  long  as  the  new  heavens 
and  neio  earth  shall  remain.  And  all  flesh  shall  come  up 
to  worship  at  the  holy  feasts  :  and  they  shall  go  forth  and 

look  upon  the  carcasses  of  the  transgressors,  for  their  worm  shall 

not  die,  neither  shall  their  fire  be  quenched. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    WORKS    OF    THE    PROPHETS 

We  have  now  passed  in  review  all  the  various  literary  forms  as- 
sumed by  Prophecy.  It  remains  to  consider  the  contents  of  the 
prophetic  books  that  have  come  down  to  us. 

At  the  outset  two  important  points  call  for  notice.     One  is  the 

recognition   of  what   I   will   call    Prophetic    Sentences.     In   our 

examination  of  Wisdom  literature  we  saw^  that  it  partly 

consisted  in  isolated  sayino;s,  —  the  unit  proverbs  and  the   P''°P'ieti<= 
^     °  '  ^  Sentences 

short  maxims  and  epigrams  enlarged  from  these  ;  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  books  of  wisdom  was  seen  to  be  occu- 
pied with  such  independent  literary  brevities,  and  works  that  were 
specially  consecutive  in  argument,  such  as  Eccksiastes,  never- 
theless exhibited  portions  of  their  whole  contents  given  up  to  such 
miscellaneous  matter.  To  a  much  smaller  extent  we  saw  in  Lyric 
Poetry  -  a  similar  aggregation  of  brief  poetic  sayings  or  ejacula- 
tions to  make  longer  poems.  It  is  not  surprising  then  that  in 
Prophecy  also  we  should  find,  besides  formal  discourses,  isolated 
and  independent  Sentences,  each  a  unit  of  prophetic  thought  on 
some  single  topic.  Perhaps  an  ideal  example  of  such  Prophetic 
Sentences  is  given  by  a  well-known  passage  of  Jeremiah.  This 
passage  stands  between  an  elegy  of  the  mourning  women  describ- 
ing a  devastated  land  covered  with  carcasses,  and  another  prophecy 
denouncing  uncircumcised  nations  by  name,  and  with  them  the 
uncircumcised  in  heart.  Its  distinctiveness  from  the  context  must 
be  felt  by  every  reader. 

1  Above,  pages  98,  292,  294.  2  Above,  page  164  • 

417 


41S  BIBLICAL   LITERATUBE    OF  PROPHECY 

Teremiah  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Let  not  the  wise  man  glory  in  his  wisdom, 
ix.  23  neither  let  the  mighty  man  glory  in  his  might,  let  not  the  rich  man 
glory  in  his  riches:  but  let  him  that  glorieth  glory  in  this,  that  he 
understandeth,  and  knoweth  me,  that  I  am  the  Lord  which  exer- 
cise lovingkindness,  judgement,  and  righteousness,  in  the  earth :  for 
in  these  things  I  delight,  saith  the  Lord. 

Not  only  do  such  Prophetic  Sentences  exist,  but  from  the  way 

in  which  they  appear  in  more  than  one  place,  they  would  seem  to 

have  somewhat  of  the  floating  character  of  prov- 

s.  XXIV.  17, 1  ,     gj.]3g_    -pi-^g  (>j-y  Qjf  <  fggj-  ^-^^  )-i^g  pjj-  j^]-j(^  j-j-^g  snare,' 

Jer.  xlviu.  43-4  J  ■>  V    ■>  5 

already  seen  in  a  work  of  Isaiah,  occurs  almost 
without  a  change  in  Jeremiah.  "  We  have  heard  of  the  pride  of 
Moab,  that  he  is  very  proud,"  is  a  gnome-like  sentence  found  both 
in  Isaiah's  and  Jeremiah's  Doom  Songs  on  Moab ;  and  the  two 
have  many  other  sentences  in  common.  The  three  first  sayings  in 
Obadiah's  Vision  of  Edom  —  those  putting  the  ideas  of  an  ambas- 
sador among  the  nations  proclaiming  the  humiliation  of  Edom,  of 
an  eagle  brought  down  from  a  mountain  cleft,  of  grape-gatherers 
and  robbers  leaving  gleanings  —  all  occur  in  various  parts  of 
Jeremiah's  Doom  Song  against  the  same  nation.  And  a  Pro- 
phetic Sentence  made  by  negation  of  the  proverb 

Jer.  xxxi.  29;  i       1  -i  1        , 

Ez.  xviii  about    fathers    eatmg   sour   grapes    and    children  s 

teeth  being  set  on  edge  is  found  as  an  independent 
saying  in  yercmiah,  while  it  is  expanded  into  an  elaborate  dis- 
course by  Ezekiel. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  such  Prophetic  Sentences  are  found  in 
groups,  chiefly  at  the  close  of  a  series  of  longer  prophecies.  One 
such  group  follows  the  words  of  encouragement  given  by  Isaiah  to 
Ahaz  in  the  crisis  made  by  the  unnatural  alliance  of  Israel  with 
Syria  against  Judah. 

Isaiah  ''^"f'  ''  %\\'!X\.  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  Lord  shall  hiss  for 

vii.  18-     the  fly  that  is  in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt,  and  for 
25  the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria.     And  they  shall  come,  and 

shall  rest  all  of  them  in  the  desolate  valleys,  and  in  the  holes  of  the 

rocks,  and  upon  all  thorns,  and  upon  all  pastures. 


THE  WORKS  OF   THE  PROPHETS  419 

In  that  day  shall  the  Lord  shave  with  a  razor  that  is  hired,  which 
is  in  the  parts  beyond  the  River,  even  with  the  king  of  Assyria,  the 
head  and  the  hair  of  the  feet :  and  it  shall  also  consume  the  beard. 


'  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  a  man  shall  nourish  a 
young  cow,  and  two  sheep ;  and  it  shall  come  to  pass,  for  the  abun- 
dance of  milk  that  they  shall  give  he  shall  eat  butter :  for  butter  and 
honey  shall  every  one  eat  that  is  left  in  the  midst  of  the  land. 

*  * 
* 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  every  place,  where  there 
were  a  thousand  vines  at  a  thousand  silverlings,  shall  even  be  for 
briers  and  thorns.  With  arrows  and  with  bow  shall  one  come, 
thither;  because  all  the  land  shall  be  briers  and  thorns.  And  all 
the  hills  that  were  digged  with  the  mattock,  thou  shalt  not  come 
thither  for  fear  of  briers  and  thorns,  but  it  shall  be  for  the  sending 
forth  of  oxen,  and  for  the  treading  of  sheep. 

The  isolation  of  the  first  passage  is  the  clearer  from  the  fact  that 
in  this  portion  of  Isaiah  there  is  no  mention  of  Egypt :  Assyria 
is  the  avenging  force  foreseen  in  that  crisis.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  an  individuality  about  each  of  the  four  passages,  such 
as  would  readily  give  them  currency  as  prophetic  epigrams  (so 
to  speak)  :  the  prophecy  of  the  fly  and  the  bee,  of  the  hired 
razor,  of  butter  and  honey,  of  briers  and  thorns.  We  have  seen 
that  repetition  and  reiteration  play  a  great  part  in  a  prophet's 
ministry ;  such  epigrammatic  sayings  would  be  repeated  by  the 
prophet  on  occasion  after  occasion  of  his  preaching,  until  the  text 
could  pass  into  popular  use,  while  the  prophet's  discourse  on  it 
would  adapt  itself  to  circumstances.  Nor  is  it  any  objection 
against  the  separation  of  these  four  passages  that  they  are  all 
referred  to  a  time  expressed  by  the  words  "  in  that  day :  "  on  the 
contrary,  we  find  a  few  phrases  "  in  that  day,"  "in  those  days," 
"  the  days  come,"  that  seem  to  be  used  as  regular  formulae  for 
introducing  a  prophecy. 

Another  series  of  such  Sentences  is   found   following  Isaiah's 
Doom  Song  against  Egypt.     It  differs  from  the  last  in  the  fact 


420  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

that  all  have  a  common  thought,  —  the  future  conversion  of  Egypt ; 
if  the  other  Sentences  were  like  proverbs,  this  series  corresponds 
to  the  proverb  cluster. 

Isaiah  In  that  day  there  shall  be  five  cities  in  the  land  of  Eg\-pt  that  speak 

^^•^^"     the  language  of  Canaan,  and  swear  to  the  LoRD  of  hosts;  one  shall 
be  called  The  Citv  of  Destruction. 


In  that  day  shall  there  be  an  altar  to  the  Lord  in  the  midst  of  the 
land  of  Eg)-pt,  and  a  pillar  at  the  border  thereof  to  the  Lord.  And 
it  shall  be  for  a  sign  and  for  a  witness  unto  the  Lord  of  hosts  in  the 
land  of  Eg>-pt;  for  they  shall  cry  unto  the  Lord  because  of  the 
oppressors,  and  he  shall  send  them  a  saviour,  and  a  defender,  and 

he  shall  deliver  them.  ^  , 

* 

And  the  Lord  shall  be  known  to  Eg>-pt,  and  the  Eg\-ptians  shall 
know  the  Lord  in  that  day;  yea,  they  shall  worship  with  sacrifice 
and  oblation,  and  shall  vow  a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  shall  perform  it 


And  the  Lord  shall  smite  Egypt,  smiting  and  healing;  and  they 
shall  return  unto  the  Lord,  and  he  shall  be  intreated  of  them,  and 
shall  heal  them.  ^  ^ 

In  that  day  shall  there  be  a  high  way  out  of  Eg%-pt  into  Assj-ria, 
and  the  Assyrian  shall  come  into  Eg>7)t,  and  the  Eg)"ptian  into 
Assyria;  and  the  Egyptians  shall  worship  «-ith  the  Assyrians. 


In  th^t  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  with  Egypt  and  \vith  Assyria,  a 
blessing  in  the  midst  of  the  earth  :  for  that  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath 
blessed  them,  saying.  Blessed  be  Eg>-pt  my  people,  and  .\ss)Tia  the 
work  of  my  hands,  and  Israel  mine  inheritance. 

It  is  clear  that  the  recognition  of  such  Sentences,  not  as  an 
accident,  but  as  a  regular  feature  of  prophetic  literature,  makes  a 
Reco  ti  f  great  difference  to  the  exegesis  of  particular  pas- 
sentencesin  sages.  The  documents  which  preser\-e  the  litera- 
exegesis  \.Mxt?>  of  antiquity  have  not  the  clear  separation  of 

parts,  or  even  of  whole  compositions,  that  modern  printing  has 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  421 

made   for  us  a   matter  of  course ;    and   there   is   no   element   in 
exegesis  more  important,  or  more  difficult,  than  the  determina- 
tion   exactly   where    a    literary   section    of  Scripture    begins   and 
ends.     Many  discourses  in  the  Bible  seem  to  present  perplexing 
and  obscure  lines  of  thought,  simply  because  the  discourse  has 
been  made  to  extend  over  passages  which  may  better  be  con- 
sidered as  independent.     I  take  a  casual  example. 
The  portion  of  our  Book  of  Zechariah  which   is   Zechariah  vii- 
numbered  as  chapters  seven  and  eight  is  treated 
by  most  expositors  as  a  single  discourse.     It  opens  with  a  formal 
enquiry  as  to  the  obligation  of  fasts,  to  which  an  answer  is  re- 
turned ;    near  the  end  of  this   section  there  is  another 
reference  to  fasts,  and  to  their  being  days  of  gladness  ; 
the  argument  of  the  whole  is  supposed  to  be  that  the  observance 
of  moral  duties,  and  the  Messianic  peace  that  this  will  bring  — 
which  are  topics  of  intervening   passages  —  would  make  fasts  a 
gladness  instead  of  a  burden.     But  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
links  in  this  chain  of  thought  are  very  inconsequent ;  and  the  idea 
of  the  gladness  of  fasts  is  but  little  emphasised  if  it  is  to  be  the 
climax  up  to  which  a  lengthy  discourse  has  led.     On  the  other 
hand,  portions  of  the  intervening  matter  have  a  strong  appearance 
of  independence. 

viii.  1-8  And  the  word  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  came  to  me,  saying,  Thus 
saith  the  Lord  of  hosts:  I  am  jealous  for  Zion  with  great  jealousy, 
and  I  am  jealous  for  her  with  great  fury. 

* 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  I  am  returned  unto  Zion,  and  will  dwell  in 
the  midst  of  Jerusalem :  and  Jerusalem  shall  be  called  The  City  of 
truth ;   and  the  mountain  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  The  holy  mountain. 

*  * 

* 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts :  There  shall  yet  old  men  and  old 
women  dwell  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  every  man  with  his  staff  in 
his  hand  for  very  age.  And  the  streets  of  the  city  shall  be  full  of 
boys  and  girls  playing  in  the  streets  thereof 

*  *  < 


422  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPJIECY 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts:  If  it  be  marvellous  in  the  eyes  of 
the  remnant  of  this  people  in  those  days,  should  it  also  be  marvellous 
in  mine  eyes?  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts. 

*  * 
* 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts :  Behold  I  will  save  my  people  from 
the  east  country,  and  from  the  west  country :  and  I  will  bring  them, 
and  they  shall  dwell  in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem;  and  they  shall  be 
my  people,  and  I  will  be  their  God,  in  truth  and  in  righteousness. 

A  full  discourse  stands  next,  on  the  same  general  subject,  con- 
trasting former  turbulence  with  coming  peace ;  then  the  succes- 
sion of  independent  sayings  is  continued. 

18-23  And  the  word  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  came  unto  me,  saying,  Thus 

saith  the  Lord  of  hosts :  The  fast  of  the  fourth  month,  and  the  fast 
of  the  fifth,  and  the  fast  of  the  seventh,  and  the  fast  of  the  tenth, 
shall  be  to  the  house  of  Judah  joy  and  gladness,  and  cheerful  feasts; 
therefore  love  truth  and  peace. 

*  * 
* 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts :  It  shall  yet  come  to  pass,  that  there 
shall  come  peoples,  and  the  inhabitants  of  many  cities :  and  the 
inhabitants  of  one  city  shall  go  to  another,  saying,  Let  us  go  speedily 
to  intreat  the  favour  of  the  Lord,  and  to  seek  the  Lord  of  hosts :  I 
will  go  also.  Yea,  many  peoples  and  strong  nations  shall  come  to 
seek  the  Lord  of  hosts  in  Jerusalem,  and  to  intreat  the  favour  of 
the  Lord.  ^  ^ 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts:  In  those  days  it  shall  come  to  pass, 
that  ten  men  shall  take  hold,  out  of  all  the  languages  of  the  nations, 
shall  even  take  hold  of  the  skirt  of  him  that  is  a  Jew,  saying,  We  will 
go  with  you,  for  we  have  heard  that  God  is  with  you. 

Of  course,  in  the  interpretation  of  this  or  any  part  of  Scripture 
difference  of  opinion  will  come  in.  I  am  merely  contending  for 
the  arrangement  in  isolated  Sentences  as  a  legitimate  resource  of 
exegesis.  And  with  regard  to  any  particular  passage  the  question 
must  be,  not  whether  it  is  possible  by  ingenuity  or  by  straining  to 
weave  it  into  a  continuous  whole,  but  whether,  all  things  consid- 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  423 

ered,  any  succession  of  words  may  be  better  regarded  as  a  portion 
of  a  whole  or  as  an  independent  aphorism. 

There  is  one  prophet  to  whom  the  present  consideration  apphes 
with  special  force.  From  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  there  has  been 
an  agreement  to  recognise  the  prominence  of  sententice  in  Hosea ; 
and  the  obscurity  which  all  readers  find  in  his  writings  seems 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  this  book  of  prophecy,  like  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  is  made  up  of  longer  discourses  mingled  with  abun- 
dance of  Prophetic  Sentences,  each  of  these  Sentences  an  isolated 
whole,  yet  all  reflecting  the  general  attitude  of  this  prophet  to  the 
moral  questions  of  his  time.  I  venture  upon  a  lengthy  citation  in 
order  to  give  readers,  accustomed  to  puzzle  over  Hosea's  line  of 
argument,  an  opportunity  of  appreciating  the  new  interest  that 
comes  into  the  prophecy  when  large  parts  of  it  are  presented  as 
collections  of  prophetic  epigrams. 

The  days  of  visitation  are  come,  the  days  of  recompense     Hosea 
are  come;   Israel  shall  know  it:  the  prophet  is  a  fool,  the     ^^-  7- 
man  that  hath  the  spirit  is  mad,  for  the  multitude  of  thine 
iniquity,  and  because  the  enmity  is  great. 

*  * 
* 

Ephraim  watcheth  against  my  God  :  as  for  the  prophet,  a  fowler's 

snare  is  in  all  his  ways,  and  enmity  in  the  house  of  his  God. 

*  * 
* 

They  have  deeply  corrupted  themselves,  as  in  the  days  of  Gibeah : 

he  will  remember  their  iniquity,  he  will  visit  their  sins. 

*  * 
* 

I  found  Israel  like  grapes  in  the  wilderness;   I  saw  your  fathers  as 

the  firstripe  in  the  fig  tree  at  her  first   season :    but   they  came  to 

Baal-peor,  and  consecrated  themselves  unto  the  shameful  thing,  and 

became  abominable  like  that  which  they  loved. 

*  * 
* 

As  for  Ephraim,  their  glory  shall  fly  away  like  a  bird  :  there  shall 

be  no  birth,  and  none  with  child,  and  no  conception.     Though  they 

bring  up  their  children,  yet  will  I  bereave  them,  that  there  be  not  a 

man  left:  yea,  woe  also  to  them  when  I  depart  from  them ! 

*  * 


424  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF.  PROPHECY 

Ephraim,  like  as  I  have  seen  Tyre,  is  planted  in  a  pleasant  place: 
but  Ephraim  shall  bring  out  his  children  to  the  slayer. 


Give  them,  O  Lord  :  what  wilt  thou  give?  give  them  a  miscarrying 

womb  and  dry  breasts.  ^  ^ 

* 

All  their  wickedness  is  in  Gilgal;  for  there  I  hated  them:  because 
of  the  wickedness  of  their  doings  I  will  drive  them  out  of  mine 
house:  I  will  love  them  no  more;   all  their  princes  are  revolters. 


Ephraim  is  smitten,  their  root  is  dried  up,  they  shall  bear  no  fruit: 
yea,  though  they  bring  forth,  yet  will  I  slay  the  beloved  fruit  of  their 
womb.  My  God  will  cast  them  away,  because  they  did  not  hearken 
unto  him :  and  they  shall  be  wanderers  among  the  nations. 


Israel  is  a  luxuriant  ^^ne,  which  putteth  forth  his  fruit :  according 
to  the  multitude  of  his  fruit  he  hath  multiplied  his  altars;  according 
to  the  goodness  of  his  land  they  have  made  goodly  obelisks.  Their 
heart  is  divided;  now  shall  they  be  found  guilty:  he  shall  smite 
their  altars,  he  shall  spoil  their  obelisks. 


Surely  now  shall  they  say,  We  have  no  king :  for  we  fear  not  the 
Lord;   and  the  king,  what  can  he  do  for  us? 


They  speak  vain  words,  swearing  falsely  in  making  covenants: 
therefore  judgement   springeth    up   as   hemlock  in  the    furrows  of 

the  field.  ^  ^ 

* 

The  inhabitants  of  Samaria  shall  be  in  terror  for  the  calves  of 
Beth-aven :  for  the  people  thereof  shall  mourn  over  it,  and  the 
priests  thereof  that  rejoiced  over  it,  for  the  glory  thereof,  because  it 
is  departed  from  it.  It  also  shall  be  carried  unto  Assyria  for  a  pres- 
ent to  king  Jareb :  Ephraim  shall  receive  shame,  and  Israel  shall  be 
ashamed  of  his  own  counsel. 


As  for  Samaria,  her  king  is  cut  off,  as  foam  upon  the  water.     The 
high  places  also  of  Aven,  the  sin  of  Israel,  shall  be  destroyed :  the 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  425 

tjiorn  and  the  thistle  shall  come  up  on  their  altars;    and  they  shall 
say  to  the  mountains,  Cover  us;   and  to  the  hills,  Fall  on  us. 


O  Israel  thou  hast  sinned  from  the  days  of  Gibeah :  there  they 
stood;  that  the  battle  against  the  children  of  iniquity  should  not  over- 
take them  in  Gibeah.  ^  ^ 

* 

When  it  is  my  desire,  I  will  chastise  them;  and  the  peoples  shall 
be  gathered  against  them,  when  they  are  yoked  to  their  two  trans- 
gressions. And  Ephraim  is  an  heifer  that  is  taught,  that  loveth  to 
tread  out  the  corn;  but  I  have  passed  over  upon  her  fair  neck:  I 
will  set  a  rider  on  Ephraim;    Judah  shall  plow,  Jacob  shall  break 

his  clods.  ^  ^ 

* 

Sow  to  yourselves  in  righteousness,  reap  according  to  mercy; 
break  up  your  fallow  ground :  fur  it  is  time  to  seek  the  Lord  till  he 
come  and  rain  righteousness  upon  you. 

The  second  of  our  preliminary  considerations  is  the  Prophetic 
Cycle.  Considerable  part  of  our  prophetic  literature  is  found  to 
consist  in  series  of  discourses,  or  incidents,  or  rhap- 
sodies, succeeding  one  another  just  as  the  contents  21  ^^  °  "^"^ 
of  a  modern  volume  of  sermons.  But  sometimes 
separate  prophecies  are  united  together  by  some  essential  bond, 
whether  of  structural  connection  or  of  related  subject-matter.  In 
this  second  case  the  word  Cycle  seems  appropriate.  It  has  been 
remarked  in  a  former  chapter  that  all  the  discourses  of  Malachi 
have  the  same  structural  plan  :  the  discourse  near  its  commence- 
ment is  interrupted  by  an  imaginary  objection,  or  more  than  one 
objection,  and  these  become  the  real  starting-point  of  what  fol- 
lows. The  recurrence  of  this  scholastic  device  makes  the  whole 
Book  of  Malachi  a  single  Dialectic  Cycle.  Again,  we  have  seen 
how  the  denunciations  against  Israel  and  seven  other  nations  at 
the  opening  of  Amos  are  in  structure  exactly  parallel :  they  con- 
stitute a  Cycle  of  Dooms.  The  last  section  of  this  prophecy  is  a 
series  of  emblems  (presented  in  vision),  ascending  one  above 
another  in  nearness  to  the  crisis  and  issue  :    this  is  an  Emblem 


426  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROTHECY 

Cycl6.     Such  illustrations  of  the  term  are  easy ;  one  or  two  usages 
need  more  discussion. 

The  portion  of /jWa/i  that  extends  from  chapter  twenty-eight  to 
chapter  thirty-five  is  best  considered  as  a  Cycle  and  not  merely  a 
series  of  discourses.     The  bond  of  connection  is 
saia  xxviii-  definite  :  all  the  discourses  are  animadversions 

on  a  certain  political  situation,  but  this  is  made  a 
background  for  pictures  of  the  restoration  of  Israel,  or  a  remnant 
of  Israel,  in  a  golden  age  or  Messianic  kingdom.  The  political 
situation  is  the  panic  caused  by  the  Assyrian  invasion,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  party  of  Israel's  independence  to  restrain  the  nation 

from  looking  for  support  to  the  rival  empire  of  Egypt. 

In  the  first  discourse  Isaiah  denounces  the  dissoluteness 
of  Judah's  priestly  and  prophetic  rulers  as  on  a  par  with  that  of 
Israel's  kingdom,  and  exposes  the  secret  ground  of  their  light- 
heartedness  amid  national  apprehensions  —  the  '  covenant  with 
death  and  agreement  with  hell '  they  have  made  for  themselves, 
so  that  the  overflowing  scourge  will  pass  them  by.  This  secret 
confidence  in  Egypt  he  calls  a  refuge  of  lies,  and  in  contrast  up- 
holds Jehovah's  foundation-stone  laid  in  Zion,  by  the  strength  of 
which  he  will  be  a  diadem  of  beauty  to  the  residue  that  believe  in 

him.     In  a  later  discourse,  when  an  embassy  has  been 

XXX 

openly  sent  to  Egypt,  the  prophet  pours  contempt  on 
the  alliance  with  the  "Boaster  that  sitteth  still,"  which  shall  be- 
come to  Israel  like  a  breach  ready  to  fall,  swelling  out  in  a  high 
wall.  But  after  foretelling  ruin  he  springs  to  a  glad  future,  grad- 
ually ascending  from  a  state  of  external  affliction  relieved  only  by 
the  blessing  of  spiritual  guidance,  to  a  golden  tide  in  a  plenteous 
land,  when  the  light  of  the  moon  shall  be  as  the  light  of  the  sun, 
and  the  light  of  the  sun  shall  be  sevenfold,  and  idols  shall  be 
utterly  cast  out.  The  same  combination  of  elements  marks  all 
the  discourses.  The  conclusion  of  the  series  is  a  companion 
picture  of  ideal  destruction  and  ideal  restoration.  Edom  is 
named  as  the  foe,  but  the  details  show  that  this  is  used  only  as  a 
type  of  hostile  forces  :   for  so  universal  is  the  destruction  that  all 


THE    WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  Ml 

the  host  of  heaven  are  seen  to  moulder  away,  and  the  heavens  roll 
together  as  a  scroll ;  streams  of  earth  become  pitch  and 
its  dust  brimstone,  the  smoke  of  it  going  up  for  ever ; 
palaces  are  overgrown  with  thorns  and  thistles,  fit  habitation  for 
jackals,  where  the  wild  beasts  meet  with  the  wolves,  and  the  satyr 
cries  to  his  fellow.     The  contrasting  picture  ^  is  of  the 

.  XXXV 

wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  being  glad,  and  the 
desert  blossoming  as  the  rose ;  the  glowing  sand  becomes  a  pool, 
the  habitation  of  jackals  green  with  reeds  and  rushes  :  and  a 
way  of  holiness  stretches  across,  over  which  the  ransomed  of  the 
Lord  return  to  Zion,  with  everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads.  Dis- 
courses with  such  community  of  treatment,  brought  to  such  a 
common  climax,  make  what  may  be  called  a  Cycle  of  the 
Restoration. 

Again,  there  is  a  Vision  Cycle  of  much  literary  interest  in  our 
Book   of  Zechariah.      The   hopes   of    the   Temple-builders   are 
strengthened  by  a  series  of  visions ;    not  only  do 
these  visions  belong  to  the  same  dream  and  have  a   '^i^ion  Cycle: 

.  -  ,  ,      Zechariah  i.  7- 

common  reference,  but  further,  by  a  beautiful  touch  -tl.  8 
of  vision  effect,  they  are  enclosed  in  another  '  En- 
veloping Vision,'  which  remains  constant  while  the  others  come 
and  go,  dreams  within  a  dream.  The  prophet  relates  how  "  in 
the  night  "  he  beheld  horses,  red,  sorrel,  and  white,  among  the 
myrtle  trees,  and  these  are  interpreted  to  him  as  spirits  of  minis- 
tration that  go  to  and  fro  in  the  earth.  This  is  the  Enveloping 
Vision,  —  as  it  were  the  machinery  for  carrying  out  whatever  by 
special  vision  may  be  made  known  :  and  it  seems  to  remain  in 
the  background  during  all  that  follows.  At  present  the  report  is 
that  the  earth  sitteth  still  and  is  at  rest ;  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
appeals  for  mercy  on  Jerusalem  to  tarry  no  longer,  and  is  answered 
with  comfortable  words.  The  Lord  will  return  to  Jerusalem  with 
mercies  :  and  each  of  these  mercies  is  symbolised  in  a  vision,  the 

1  It  will  be  understood  of  course  that  tlie  date  of  this  prophecy,  whether  of  its 
composition  or  of  that  to  which  it  may  refer,  does  not  affect  the  argument :  we  are 
here  concerned  with   the   order  of  prophecies   as   they  stand,  whoever  may  be 

responsible  for  the  arrangement. 


42S  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

prophet  feeling  himself,  as  it  were,  wakened  from  sleep  to  behold 
each.     The  first  vision  is  of  Horns  and  Smiths  :  the  for- 

iv,  I 

mer  are  interpreted  of  the  nations  that  have  lifted  them- 
selves up  against  Jerusalem,  the  latter  of  the  forces  that  shall  fray 
these  and  cast  them  down.  A  second  vision  show^s  a  man  with  a 
measuring  line,  going  to  measure  Jerusalem  :  for  its  inhabitants 
shall  increase  till  it  must  needs  be  inhabited  as  villages  without 
walls.  The  third  vision  presents  the  hierarchy  of  heaven,  and 
the  High  Priest  Joshua  (representative  of  the  Temple-builders) 
assailed  by  the  Adversary  :  but  the  Adversary  is  rebuked,  and 
Joshua  is  clad  in  rich  apparel,  with  a  mitre  set  on  his  head.  The 
next  appearance  is  of  the  Golden  Candlestick :  this  final  piece  of 
Temple  furniture  symbolises  how  Zerubbabel  shall  complete  as  well 
as  begin  his  good  work.  While  the  prophet  watches  this  he  is 
aware  of  the  two  olive  trees  on  either  side  of  it :  this  is  a  separate 
emblem,  giving  authority  for  associating  the  two  '  sons  of  oil,'  — 
the  prince  Zerubbabel  and  the  priesthood.  Two  more  visions 
foreshadow  the  moral  purification  of  the  land  :  the  Flying  Roll  of 
the  Curse  indicating  crime  purged  out  of  the  country,  and  Wicked- 
ness in  the  ephah  pressed  down  by  the  weight  of  a  talent  showing 
how  the  wickedness  of  the  land  shall  be  banished,  as  the  visionary 
figure  is  banished,  into  the  wilderness.  The  succession  of  indi- 
vidual mercies  concluded,  the  Enveloping  Vision  resumes  :  chariots 
are  now  added  to  the  horses,  from  between  the  two  mountains  of 
brass  :  and  they  are  to  depart  to  the  four  winds  of  heaven  to  exe- 
cute the  will  of  the  Lord.  The  unity  that  is  implied  in  all  Cycles 
reaches  a  climax  in  such  enveloping  of  symbolic  details  in  the 
symbol  of  that  which  is  to  provide  for  their  execution. 

These  preliminary  considerations  disposed  of,  the  remaining 
task  of  this  chapter  becomes  easy.  In  the  Appendix  to  this  work 
I  attempt  to  analyse  the  contents  of  each  book  of  prophecy,  sepa- 
rating discourses  and  sentences,  indicating  the  nature  of  each, 
and,  where  convenient,  adding  titles.  Here  it  is  only  necessary 
to  sum  up. 


THE    WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  429 

In  several  cases  the  contents  of  a  prophetic  work  consist  of  a 
single  composition.     Obadiah,  Nahum,  and  Zephaniah  have  left 
only  a  single  Discourse.     The  Book  of  Jonah  we 
have  in  a  former  chapter  seen  to  be  a  single  pro-   phetiTB^ooks  ^^' 
phetic  Epic.     We  have  also  seen  that  the  books  of  gjuj^te^  ij^oj^g 
'jFoel  and  Amos  resolve  themselves  each  into  a  sin- 
gle Rhapsody.     A  degree  more  varied  are  the  prophetic  works  of 
Habakkuk,  which  consist  of  his  Rhapsody  of  the  Chaldeatis  and 
his  Ode  of  yudgment.     In  Haggai  we  find  four  Occasional  Dis- 
courses, regularly  dated.     And  we  have  seen  that  the  prophecy  of 
Malachi  may  be  regarded  as  a  Dialectic  Cycle. 

The  rest  of  prophetic  literature  shows  more  complexity.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  that  when  we  speak  of  '  The  Book  of  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,'  we  are  using  an  ambiguous  term.  The  whole 
works  of  this  prophet,  as  of  others,  fall  into  several  '  books  ' ;  just 
as  what  in  ordinary  parlance  is  called  '  The  Book  of  Psalms  ' 
appears  in  the  Revised  Version  as  five  books,  clearly  separated  by 
doxologies.  So,  with  the  exception  of  the  nine  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  the  works  of  the  prophets  divide  themselves 
into  more  than  one  book  for  each  author. 

Our  Book  of  Isaiah  falls  naturally  into  seven  books. -^  The  first 
is  made  up  of  general  prophecies,  ending  with  the  Vision  of  the 
Call.  Six  chapters  contain  Occasional  prophecies,  one  set  -..-^^^^ 
relating  to  the  Unholy  Alliance  of  Israel  with  Syria,  another 
inspired  by  an  Assyrian  Invasion.  The  fourth  book  contains  the 
Doom  Songs  collected  together :  these  may  be  considered  to 
make  a  Cycle  of  Doom,  as  they  are  followed  by  the  general  Rhap- 
sody of  ytidgment  upon  the  whole  earth.  I  have  already  in  dis- 
cussing the  word  '  cycle '  described  the  next  section  of  Isaiah  as  a 
Cycle  of  the  Restoration.  As  a  sixth  book  we  have  a  brief  historical 
excerpt,  bringing  out  Isaiah's  action  in  the  great  crisis  of  Sennach- 
erib's invasion.    The  last  book  is  the  Rhapsody  of  Zion  Redeemed? 

1  Compare  the  Literary  Index  throughout. 

2  It  will  be  understood  that  the  question  whether  this  section  is  from  the  same 
author  as  preceding  parts  ol  Isaiah  is  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 


430  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

The  discourses  of  Jeremiah  seem  to  be  grouped  in  more  numer- 
ous divisions,  making  ten  books  in  all.     After  a  section  occupied 

by  the  prophet's  Call,  and  general  Manifesto  of  his  min- 
Jeremiah       ■  '      ^  , 

istry,  we  have  a  second  contammg  miscellaneous  dis- 
courses and  sentences.  Then  follow  several  clear  groups,  founded 
on  a  Missionary  journey,  on  the  Drought,  on  Pottery,  on  Messages 
to  Rulers.  The  seventh  book  is  largely  occupied  with  Contro- 
versies ;  the  eighth  contains  the  prophecies  of  the  Restoration. 
A  book  follows  of  Incidental  discourses  and  prophetic  history; 
and  the  collection  of  Doom  Songs  concludes  the  series. 

The  arrangement  of  Ezekiel's  Works  is  very  simple  and  clear. 

They  fall  into  only  three  books  :  the  first  contains  prophecies  of 

Judgment,  the  third  prophecies  of  the  Restoration,  each 

brought  to  a  climax  by  the  two  parts  of  the  connected 

Vision  of  Jerusalem  judged  and  Jerusalem  restored.     The  book 

separating  these  is  occupied  with  the  Dooms  on  the  Nations. 

The  Prophecy  of  Daniel  makes  two  books  :  one  of  Prophetic 
Incidents  and  Interpretations  of  Visions,  arranged  in  chronological 
Danei       order ;  the  other  a  Cycle  of  Visions  seen  by  the  prophet 
himself     Hosea  also  falls  into  two  divisions.     The  Em- 
blem Prophecy  of  Gomer  makes  one.     The  other  consists  of  dis- 
courses, brief  rhapsodies,  and  especially  long  collections 
of  prophetic  sentences,  but  all  uniting  to  convey  the  idea 
of  the  Lord's  Controversy  with  Israel ;  perhaps,  on  the  analogy  of 
Wisdom  literature,  this  might  be  called  a  Cluster  of  Prophecies. 
Micah   has   two  very  different   sections  ;   five    chapters 

Micah  -^        . 

contain  miscellaneous  discourses,  the  last  two  the  very 

dramatic  prophecies  fully  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter.     And 

our  Book  of  Zechariah    falls   into  three  divisions,  very 
Zechariah 

diverse  in   character.^     The  first   is    miscellaneous,  but 

mainly  occupied  with  the  elaborate  Vision  Cycle  described  above. 

The  other  two  divisions  contain  discourses,  the  matter  of  which 

suggests  their  separation  into  two  books. 

1  It  will  be  understood  that  the  question  whether  the  three  parts  are  by  the  same 
author  is  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  431 

This  completes  the  Hst  of  Old  Testament  prophets.  But  the 
New  Testament  furnishes  a  book  which  must  be  considered  in  this 
connection.  The  Revelation  of  St.  J^ohn  is  too 
closely  involved  with  modern  theological  questions  Reveution 
to  admit  of  its  being  discussed  in  a  work  from 
which  distinctively  religious  matter  is  excluded.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  hterary  study  of  Scripture  it  is  impossible  to  ignore  a 
composition  of  such  transcendent  literary  interest.  If  a  reader 
will  apply  to  this  book  of  Revelation  a  method  which  ought  to  be 
applied  to  all  parts  of  Scripture,  and  set  himself  to  take  in  the 
whole  at  a  sitting,  reading  with  his  imagination  on  the  stretch  in 
the  way  in  which  he  would  read  Dante's  Hell,  Purgatory,  and 
Paradise,  he  will  find,  whatever  his  theological  principles  may  be, 
that  this  Vision  Cycle  is  one  of  the  literary  wonders  of  the  world. 
I  will  be  content  with  making  two  remarks  on  the  subject,  and 
with  these  my  treatment  of  Biblical  Prophecy  may  be  brought  to 
a  conclusion. 

The  title  contains  the  word  '  revelation.'  But  in  our  discussion 
of  prophetic  forms  we  saw  that  this  word  had  two  distinct  mean- 
ings :  revelation  of  the  future,  as  in  the  visions  of 
Daniel,  and  revelation  of  the  ideal,  as  in  Ezekiel's  titiT^"^^"  ^ 
Visions  of  Jerusalem,  or  the  original  revelation  to 
Moses  in  the  mount.  Which  of  these  meanings  applies,  or  do 
they  both  apply,  to  the  work  of  St.  John  ?  The  popular  mind  has 
seized  upon  the  first  of  these,  and  looks  upon  St.  John's  Revela- 
tion as  a  prophetic  riddle,  the  ingenious  reading  of  which  will  give 
a  clue  to  events  of  past  or  future  history,  or  will  even  enable  the 
present  to  be  exactly  located  in  some  scheme  of  all  time.  But  if 
the  words  of  the  prologue,  "  the  things  which  must  shortly  come 
to  pass,"  and  the  parallels  with  Daniel's  visions,  favour  the  view 
that  the  revelation  is  a  foreshowing,  yet  on  the  other  hand  the 
equally  close  parallels  with  Ezekiel's  visions,  and  the  building  up 
of  the  whole  structure  upon  symbolic  symmetries,  counterparts, 
and  antitheses,  make  it  certain  that  the  idealising  of  the  world- 
contest  between  good  and  evil  is  of  the  very  essence  of  the^ 


432  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

work.^  Moreover,  if  both  kinds  of  revelation  belong  to  this  book, 
they  will  mutually  modify  one  another.  Suppose  that  some  specially 
distinctive  detail  of  the  symbolism  suggests  connection  with  some 
historic  power  or  institution  :  then,  by  the  influence  of  the  other 
type  of  revelation,  we  must  expect  that  historic  reality  to  be  ideal- 
ised in  the  movement  of  the  vision,  so  that  it  would  still  be 
hazardous  exegesis  to  interrogate  other  details  of  the  symboHsm 
for  further  historic  details.  I  have  before  remarked  upon  the  way 
in  which  prophetic  literature  as  a  whole  has  suffered  from  the 
unfortunate  narrowing  of  the  word  '  prophecy '  in  ordinary  con- 
versation to  the  single  sense  of  prediction.  No  part  of  prophetic 
literature  has  suffered  so  much  in  this  respect  as  St.  John's  Reve- 
lation  ;  and  the  literary  student,  at  all  events,  should  address  him- 
self to  those  permanent  spiritual  interests  of  the  book  which  are 
independent  of  times  and  seasons. 

But  the  Book  of  Revelation    presents  another  feature  of  the 

highest  interest  and  significance.     It  may  be  expressed  in  a  phrase 

of  the  vision  itself:  "  The  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the 

Association  of  its   spirit  of  prophecy."     Underlying  the  whole  book 

details  with  .       ,        .  ,  ,  ■,       ,,  ,     ■  r  x  /^i    •      .. 

other  prophecy       ^s  the  idea  that  the  "revelation  of  Jesus  Christ 

is  a  bringing  together  and  enhancing  of  all  pre- 
vious revelations  ;  and  accordingly  in  the  symbolic  scenery  of  the 
visions,  and  the  phrases  by  which  they  are  described,  the  concep- 
tions of  Old  Testament  prophecy  are  continually  appearing  in  new 
forms  and  combinations.  At  the  outset,  when  the  Apostle  speaks 
of  being  'in  the  Spirit,'  we  think  of  Ezekiel  borne  by  the  spirit  to 
Jerusalem.  The  prefatory  messages  to  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia,  with  their  individual  details  and  rhythmic  promises  and 
threats,  remind  us  of  the  chain  of  denunciations  in  similar  form 
on  seven  nations  with  which  Amos  opens  his  prophecy,  before  he 
deals  with  his  church  of  Israel.  In  the  vision  itself  we  begin  at 
once  to  get  details  from  Old  Testament  prophets.     The  personal 

1  I  may  be  allowed  to  express  my  admiration  of  the  way  in  which  this  element 
of  interpretation  has  been  worked  out  in  the  late  Professor  Milligan's  Revelation  (a 
volume  of  the  Expositor's  Bible,  Hodder  &  Sloughton). 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  433 

description  of  one  coming  with  the  clouds,  of  hair  white  as  wool, 
a  golden  girdle,  feet  like  burnished  brass,  eyes  of  fire,  is  entirely 
from  Daniel ;  from  Ezekiel  come  the  rainbow  round  about  the 
throne  and  the  four  living  creatures.  The  naming  of  Him  who 
is  worthy  to  open  the  book  as  the  '  Root  of  David  '  brings  up 
the  '  Branch  '  and  '  Shoot '  which  have  figured  in  the  Messianic 
pictures  of  Isaiah ;  and  the  other  appellative,  '  the  Lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,'  takes  us  back  to  Primitive  Prophecy  and  the 
Blessings  of  Jacob  on  the  tribes.  It  is  the  same  with  the  symbols 
that  make  up  the  succession  of  scenes.  The  book  written  within 
and  without,  the  little  book  to  be  eaten  and  found  sweet  in  the 
mouth  and  bitter  in  the  belly,  have  both  become  familiar  from 
the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel ;  the  golden  candlestick  of  Zechariah's 
vision  is  multiplied  sevenfold  for  this  supreme  revelation,  and  its 
appendage  of  the  two  olive  trees  now  becomes  the  centre  of  a 
separate  chapter  of  allegory ;  the  incense  symbolising  the  prayers 
of  the  saints  realises  the  imagery  of  the  psalms ;  if 
again  the  delivered  psalmist  has  cried  that  God 
has  put  a  '  new  song '  in  his  mouth,  the  thought  finds  here  a  real- 
isation in  the  mystic  new  song  which  none  but  the  sealed  of  the 
Lord  can  learn.  The  prophetic  conceptions  undergo  alteration 
and  enlargement  as  they  reappear.  Zechariah's  vision  had  pre- 
sented spirits  of  ministration  on  the  earth  in  the  form  of  horses, 
white,  red,  black,  grisled,  —  the  colours  being  a  picturesque 
detail :  but  the  horses  of  Revelation  —  the  white,  the  red,  the 
black,  the  pale  —  have  each  a  hue  mystically  connected  with  its 
ofiice  of  judgment.  Prophecy  had  frequently  couched  its  mys- 
teries under  the  image  of  a  book  sealed  up  :  this  consummation 
t)f  all  things  presents  the  unsealing.  Among  the  instruments  of 
woe  the  trumpets  represent  the  trumpet  sound  which  in  the  rliap- 
sodies  had  marked  the  commencement  of  panic,  the  bowls  poured 
out  repeat  the  regular  image  of  the  Doom  Songs,  —  the  cup  of 
Jehovah's  fury.  The  woes  tlius  hurled  upon  tlie  world  are  the 
'  plagues '  of  Egypt  magnified  :  when  locusts  are  mentioned,  the 
mystic  imagery  of  Joel  is  worked  into  the  description ;  when  hail 


H34  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

is  pictured,  the  expression  "  every  stone  about  the  weight  of  a 
talent"  reads  Hke  a  momentary  finger-pointing  to  Zechariah's  vis- 
ion of  Wickedness  pressed  down  with  the  talent  of  lead.  Where 
the  form  of  woes  goes  outside  the  Egyptian  plagues  prophecy  has 
other  symbols  to  contribute,  and  the  '  burning  mountain '  recalls 
Jeremiah's  Doom  of  Babylon,  as  the  star  Wormwood  the  Doom  of 
Babylon  in  Isaiah.  Again,  the  recital  of  the  number  of  the  saved, 
tribe  by  tribe,  recalls  in  its  rhythm  a  similar  recital  of  the  portions 
of  the  tribes  of  Ezekiel.  Of  course  a  new  chord  has  been  struck 
in  the  vision  that  immediately  follows :  the  "  great  multitude, 
which  no  man  could  number,  out  of  every  nation,  and  of  all  tribes 
and  peoples  and  tongues,  standing  before  the  throne."  But  as  the 
description  is  continued  hallowed  associations  from  old  prophecy 
come  in.  That  they  have  "  washed  their  robes  and  made  them 
white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb,"  combines  Isaiah's  promise  that 
sins  red  as  crimson  should  be  as  wool  with  Zechariah's  vision  of 
the  filthy  garments  taken  in  the  heavenly  court  from  Joshua  that 
he  might  be  clothed  in  rich  vestments  ;  while  the  sweetly  sounding 
promise  — 

They  shall  hunger  no  more,  neither  thirst  any  more,  neither  shall  the 
sun  strike  upon  them,  nor  any  heat,  for  the  Lamb  which  is  in  the 
midst  of  the  throne  shall  be  their  shepherd,  and  shall  guide  them 
unto  fountains  of  waters  of  life  — 

has  been  spoken  before  by  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  in  the  Isaiahan 
Rhapsody.  Sometimes  St.  John's  symbols  or  descriptive  touches 
would  fail  to  produce  their  effect  if  separated  from  the  associa- 
tions they  recall.  It  would  seem  harsh  in  so  mystic  a  scene  to 
speak  of  exact  numbers  :  but  the  phrase  of  the  old  processional 

ps^ilm  — 

The  chariots  of  God  are  twenty  thousand, 
Even  thousands  upon  thousands  — 

renders  it  possible  for  Revelation  to  make  the  armies  of  the  horse- 
men "  twice  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand."  Again  we  might 
see  no  point  in  the  symbol  of  the  balance  held  by  the  rider  on  the 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  435 

black  horse,  were  it  not  that  Ezekiel's  mimic  siege  has  accustomed 
us  to  associate  famine  with  eating  bread  by  weight  and  drinking 
water  by  measure.  And  when  we  reach  the  tumult  of  winds  and 
sea  and  the  beasts  coming  up  out  of  the  sea,  the  vision  becomes 
pointless  unless  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  are  assumed  throughout. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  use  in  Revelatioji  of  the  Old 
Testament  prophecy  is  no  borrowing  or  travelling  backward  ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  conceptions  of  the  prophets  become  intensified 
by  being  massed  together,  and  ideas  from  diverse  sources  unite  in 
a  single  new  conception.  The  horror  of  nature  that  attends  the 
opening  of  the  sixth  seal  is  given  in  a  single  description.  Its  first 
clause,  as  to  the  sun  becoming  black  as  sackcloth  and  the  moon  as 
blood,  gives  a  phenomenon  of  change  three  times  used  by  Joel. 
Then  the  stars  falling  from  heaven,  "as  a  shaken  fig  tree  casts 
her  unripe  figs,"  unites  Isaiah's  expression  of  stars  falling  "  as  a 
fading  leaf  from  the  fig  tree  "  with  Nahum's  application  of  the 
image  of  a  shaken  fig  tree  to  the  succession  of  fortresses  yielded 
in  a  panic.  Then  the  detail  of  the  heavens  being  rolled  up  as  a 
scroll  recalls  Isaiah's  ideal  ruin  of  Edom ;  that  of  the  mountains 
and  islands  moving  and  fleeing  has  been  a  stock  prophetic  image ; 
the  idea  of  men's  hiding  in  the  caves  and  rocks  has  been  used  in 
Isaiah's  opening  manifesto,  their  crying  to  the  rocks  and  moun- 
tains to  fall  on  them  and  cover  them  has  been  pictured  by  Hosea. 
The  final  climax  of  the  description  —  that  the  great  day  of  wrath 
is  come,  and  who  is  able  to  abide  it?  —  borrows  the  refrain  of 
Joel's  rhapsody.  Or  again  :  when  the  angel  casts  his  sickle  to 
the  earth,  we  at  once  recognise  the  consummation  foreshadowed 
by  Joel ;  but  when  the  vintage  so  gathered  is  cast  into  the  wine- 
press of  the  wrath  of  God,  the  association  is  with  the  vision  of 
judgment  in  the  Isaiahan  Rhapsody ;  when  again  blood  comes 
out  of  the  winepress  and  reaches  even  to  the  bridles  of  the 
horses,  the  image  of  that  rhapsody  has  become  united  with  an 
early  picture  of  Isaiah,  which  represented  the  Assyrian  flood 
deluging  the  land  and  reaching  to  the  horses'  necks.  The  song 
over  Fallen  Babylon  recalls  many  such  songs  of  old  prophecy ; 


436  BIBLICAL   LLTERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

but  before  it  has  gone  far  the  details  have  entirely  changed,  and 
identified  the  fallen  power  also  with  Tyre  whose  ruin  is  wept  over 
by  the  merchant  and  the  shipman :  the  suggestion  is  that  all  the 
bulwarks  of  evil  are  included  in  the  Babylon  of  Revelation.  To 
take  a  final  example.  The  New  Jerusalem  seen  with  the  measured 
symmetries  of  its  walls  and  gates  is  the  Jerusalem  of  Ezekiel.  Its 
coming  down  as  a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband  is  the  thought 
of  one  of  the  songs  to  Zion  Exalted  in  the  rhapsody  of  Isaiah ; 
from  another  of  these  songs  come  the  foundations  of  precious 
stones  and  pearly  gates ;  yet  another  has  foreshadowed  the  gates 
open  day  and  night,  the  Divine  Sun  in  the  glory  of  which  nations 
walk.  And  the  additional  picture  of  the  river  of  water  of  life  — 
with  the  trees  of  life,  yielding  their  monthly  fruits,  and  leaves  for 
the  healing  of  the  nations  —  has  brought  us  back  to  the  visions 
of  Ezekiel. 

Even  as  a  Hterary  effect  this  building  up  of  new  conceptions  out 
of  details  that  come  to  us  hallowed  with  the  associations  of  past 
literature  is  eminently  impressive.  It  is  another  form  of  that 
which  in  secular  literature  is  the  chain  of  '  classic '  succession,  by 
which  Miltonic  poetry  will  in  its  every  detail  echo  some  classic 
image  or  expression  of  Italian  and  Roman  hterature,  as  these  in 
their  turn  had  made  their  details  suggest  their  origin  in  the  classic 
poetry  of  Greece.  The  emblematic  ideas  of  prophecy,  however, 
go  far  beyond  literary  imagery ;  and,  whether  we  consider  matter 
or  form,  it  is  highly  significant  that  the  final  outpouring  of  Scrip- 
tural Prophecy  should  be  a  Procession  of  symbolic  visions  in 
which  the  visionary  symbols  of  all  preceding  prophecy  have  grown 
together  into  their  consummation. 


Book   Sixth 

THE   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE  OF   RHETORIC 


Chapter  Page 

XIX.    The  Epistles:  or  Written  Rhetoric       .        .        .  439 

XX.    Spoken  Rhetoric  :  and  the  '  Book  of  Deuteron- 
omy'            444 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    EPISTLES  :    OR    WRITTEN    RHETORIC 

The  word  '  rhetoric '  has  several  meanings.     In  the  sense  that 
belongs  to  its  most  common  usage  it  has  little  connection  with 
the   purpose  of  the   present  work.     Questions   of 
style  seem  to  me  to  belong  to  the  study  of  Ian-   Rhetoric:  the 
guage  rather  than  to  the  study  of  literature  ;  unless   Address 
in  such  cases  as  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  where  we 
saw  a  peculiarity  of  style  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  make  the  com- 
position a  literary  class  by  itself,  the  morphological  distinctness  of 
which  must  be  kept  in  mind  by  one  who  would  appreciate  the 
argument.     At  present  I  am  using  the  word  '  rhetoric '  in  a  differ- 
ent sense, — as  the  literature  of  address.     The  Biblical  literature 
of  address  falls  into  two  main  divisions  :  the  Epistle,  or  Written 
Address,  and  Oratory,  the  Spoken  Address. 

The  Epistolary  literature  of  the  Bible  constitutes  a  department 
of  the  highest  importance  as  regards  its  subject-matter.     But  its 
treatment   need   occupy  only  a  small   space  in  a 
work  of  which  the  purpose  is  to  note  distinctions  Epistolary  Lit- 

-  ,.  ^  .  11     1         .  •  •         erature:  the 

of  literary  form.     All  that  is  necessary  is  to  point   written  Address 
out   that   the  generic  term  '  epistle '  covers  three 
classes  of  composition  worth  distinguishing,  without  reckoning  the 
Epistle  of  St.  James,  which  has  already  been  treated  as  a  part  of 
Wisdom  literature. 

The  first  and  largest  class  is  made  up  of  epistles  in  the  strictest 
sense,  —  the  Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse.  These  have  the  full 
form  of  epistolary  correspondence  :  commencing  with  a  salutation 

439 


440  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

from  the  Apostle/  with  whom  other  names  are  joined  in  some 

cases,  to  a  distinct  church  or  fellow-worker ;  ending 

pis  eso    as-        j  j^  further  salutations  and    sometimes  an  auto- 

toral  Intercourse 

graph  message,  and  with  greetings,  general  or  by 
name.  Sometimes  messages  to  individuals,  or  about  the  treat- 
ment of  individuals,  appear  in  the  body  of  the  letter ;  information 
is  given  as  to  the  writer's  condition,  or  his  prospective  movements 
and  the  possibility  of  personal  visits  to  his  correspondents ;  refer- 
ence is  made  to  affairs  of  the  church  or  person  addressed,  and 
even  to  financial  questions  or  to  the  disposal  of  articles  of  luggage 
left  behind.  The  matter  of  the  epistle,  moreover,  is  called  forth  by 
particular  circumstances ;  though  in  treating  the  particular  the 
writer  can  rise  or  digress  to  the  deepest  principles  touched  in  the 

highest  forms  of  expression.     The  First  Epistle  to 

I  Corinthians  ,_.,.  -i,  iri-  t 

the  Corinthians  is  an  ideal  example  of  this  type.    Its 

earlier  paragraphs  are  drawn  from  St.  Paul  by  tidings  he  has  heard 

of  the  Church  at  Corinth  :  tidings  of  factions,  of  moral  laxity,  of 

proceedings  against  brethren  in  secular  courts.     Then  he  turns  to 

answer  questions  of  principle,  or  of  ecclesiastical  poHcy,  which 

have  been  conveyed  to  him  on  behalf  of  the  Corinthian  church ; 

he  thus  treats  of  celibacy,  of  the  idol  feasts  which  constituted  a 

burning  question  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  of  the  relation 

of  the  sexes  in  places  of  worship  ;  the  question  of  diverse  spiritual 

gifts  seems  also  to  be  among  those  put  to  him,  and  in  treating  it 

he  is  led  to  the  famous  outpouring  on  '  charity,'  or  '  love.'     He 

concludes  with  a  summary  of  the  'gospel'  he  has  preached,  but  a 

summary  really  designed  for  a  single  purpose,  to  meet  doubts  that 

had  arisen  concerning  the  resurrection  doctrine  of  the  Apostles. 

The  other  pastoral  epistles  are,  in  their  general  character  as  a 

branch  of  Uterature,  covered  by  this  typical  example.    The  Second 

Epistle   to  the    Corinthians   seems   to  have  been 
Episties^^  ""^^        called  forth  by  the  reception  of  the  first.     That  to 

the  Galatians  is  a  personal  remonstrance  from  St. 
Paul  to  churches  with   which  he  conceived   himself  to  have  a 

1  In  the  case  of  //,  ///  John  the  writer  appears  only  as  '  The  Elder.' 


THE   EPISTLES:     OR    WRITTEN  RHETORIC  441 

special  bond  of  intimacy,  and  wiiich  had  been  disturbed  by  Juda- 
ising  tendencies  such  as  it  was  the  mission  of  this  Apostle  to  resist. 
The  epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  perhaps  originated  by  a  desire 
to  heal  local  differences,  if  we  may  judge  from  an  appeal 

iv,  2 

to  that  effect  addressed  to  individuals  by  name  ;  but  its 
matter  as  a  whole  is  general.  Those  to  the  Thessalonians  have 
an  individual  colour  given  to  them  by  the  prominence  of  discus- 
sions touching  the  expected  near  'coming  of  Christ.'  The  epistles 
to  Timothy  are  appeals  to  a  '  child  in  the  faith '  and  fellow-worker, 
touching  his  personal  character  as  a  teacher ;  but  St.  Paul  also 
pronounces  through  him  upon  questions  likely  to  be  disputed  by 
those  amongst  whom  Timothy  would  labour.  The  epistle  to  Titus 
is  a  general  summary  of  instruction  to  one  left  in  charge  of  a  dis- 
trict where  much  organising  was  to  be  done.  The  epistle  to 
Philemon  was  a  personal  appeal  sent  by  St.  Paul  with  a  runaway 
slave,  now  Christianised,  and  desiring  to  return  to  his  master,  a 
convert  and  friend  of  the  Apostle.  Of  a  similar  personal  char- 
acter are  the  epistles  (numbered  second  and  third)  of  St.  John, 
addressed  to  an  unnamed  lady  and  to  Gaius. 

There  is  a  clear  distinction  between  such  epistles  of  Pastoral 
Intercourse  and  two  others,  which  may  be  designated  Epistolary 
Treatises.    The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  addressed, 
it  is  true,  to  a  particular  church :    but  it  is   the   ^reatises^ 
church  of  the  world's  metropolis,  and  one  which 
the  writer  has  never  visited.     The  formalities  of  salutation  quickly 
lead  the  writer  to  that  which  is  his  text :  the  new  con- 

r       ,    ■    1  T        /•  •  1    ,      I  ■    1     •  1        •  Romans 

ception  or  a  '  righteousness  by  laith,  which  is  salvation 
'  to  the  Jew  first  and  also  to  the  Greek.'  What  follows  is  a  for- 
mal and  ordered  exposition  of  this  conception,  the  writer  through- 
out keeping  before  him  the  two  parties  of  Jews  and  non-Jews, 
whose  attitudes  to  the  new  doctrine  would  be  so  different.  Com- 
mencing with  first  principles  he  gradually  reaches  a  climax  in  the 
idea  of  a  world  redemption ;  if  then  he  passes  from  argument  to 
exhortation,  yet  his  exhortations  are  only  another  form  of  his  argu- 
ment, and  represent  the  gospel  realised  in  practical  life.   The  con- 


442  BIBUCAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

elusion  has  the  greetings,  and  references  to  the  vniter's  movements, 
which  belong  to  the  pastoral  epistles.    The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
lacks  all  epistolary  form  of  opening,  even  the  name  of  its 
author ;  at  the  close  there  is  only  a  reference  to  the  Ubera- 
tion  of  Timothy,  and  a  salutation  from  '  them  of  Italy.'   The  whole  is 
an  elaborate  and  symmetrical  argument,  brilliant  in  style,  addressed 
by  a  Hebrew  to  Hebrews,  the  purport  of  which  is  that  the  Law 
must  give  place  to  the  Gospel  as  to  a  higher  and  fuller  dispensation. 
A  third  class  of  epistles  is  to  be  distinguished,  which  will  include 
those  to  the  Colossiatts  and  Ephesians,  those  of  Peter,  of  J^ude, 
Epistolary  Maui-   ^^^  the  Eirst  Epistle  of  yohn.     Of  these  only  the 
iestos  epistle  to  the  Cobssians  has  the  regular  epistolary 

salutations  and  greetings.  That  named  after  the  Ephesians  is  really 
a  circular  letter  to  churches,  of  which  the  church  at  Ephesus  was 
onlv  the  chief,  and  in  place  of  final  greetings  we  here  find  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  bearer  of  the  epistle.  The  others  have  in  our 
Bibles  the  title  of  '  general ' :  St  Peter's  are  addressed  "  To  the 
elect  who  are  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion  in  Pontus,  &:c.,"  and 
"  To  them  that  have  obtained  a  hke  precious  faith  with  us  "  ;  that 
of  Jude,  "  To  them  that  are  called,  beloved  in  God  the  Father, 
and  kept  for  Jesus  Christ "  ;  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  yohn  has  no 
address.  I  think  this  group  would  be  correctly  designated  Epis- 
tolar)-  Manifestos.  The  writer's  whole  conception  of  the  truth 
and  the  life  of  which  he  is  a  minister  is  concentrated  in  a  single 
deliverance,  not  for  purposes  of  general  argument  or  exposition 
(though  both  are  found),  but  drawn  out  by  some  special  situation 
of  the  church,  and  making  appeal  to  the  whole  nature  of  those  who 
read,  intellectual  and  spiritual,  whether  in  their  private  or  corporate 
Coiossians  and  capacity.  In  the  case  of  the  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
Ephesians  sians  the  inspiring  situation  seems  to  be  the  rivalry 

of  some  other  well-ordered  systems  of  truth,  and  the  purpose  of 
the  epistles  is  to  put  forward  the  Christian  faith  and  life  as  satis- 
fung  every  capacity  of  the  fiillest  nature.  St.  Peter's  ad- 
I  Peicr  jress  to  the  Dispersion  is  clearly  called  out  by  an  era  of 
cruel  persecution,  which  has  naturally  driven  the  Church  to  test 


THE  EPISTLES:     OR    WRITTEN  RHETORIC  443 

the  foundations  of  the  faith  for  which  it  is  suffering.     The  Epistle 
of  "yude,  and  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  which  has 

J   -J         '  ^  -^  jude  and  II  Peter 

SO  much  in  common  with  it,  are  manifestos  neces- 
sitated by  evil  attacking  the  Church  from  within  :  the  perversion 
of  the  doctrine  of  '  Uberty  '  into  a  bold  antinomianism  that  set  at 
defiance  elementary  morality  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  order.  St. 
John's  Epistle  seems  in  a  general  way  to  have  originated 
in  that  which  would  be  an  accessory  cause  of  the  others, 
—  the  sense  that  the  age  was  'the  last  time'  and  the  time  of 
antichrists  ;  in  particular,  the  number  of  those  who  could  bear 
personal  witness  to  the  life  of  Christ  was  fost  disappearing,  and 
the  last  pronouncements  of  those  who  still  survived  must  be  heard. 
Reviewing  all  three  classes  I  may  add  one  remark.  The  Epis- 
tles occupy  in  the  New  Testament  the  place  occupied  by  Prophecy 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  prophets  ministered  oid  Testament 
to  a  nation,  and  could  move  amongst  their  fellow-  counterparts  of 
countrymen  and  bring  to  bear  on  them  the  power  *^^  Epistles 
of  vocal  address.  The  Apostles  addressed  those  who  were  scat- 
tered through  distant  cities,  and  could  communicate  with  the 
Church  as  a  whole  only  by  letter.  The  Pastoral  Epistles  corre- 
spond to  the  Occasional  Discourses  and  Prophetic  Incidents  which 
make  up  so  large  a  proportion  of  prophetic  literature.  In  our 
analysis  of  Prophecy  we  have  also  noticed  the  Prophetic  Mani- 
festo, embodying,  like  the  Epistolary  Manifestos,  the  preacher's 
general  conception  of  his  ministry.  For  the  Epistolary  Treatises 
there  is  no  counterpart  in  prophetic  literature  ;  for  the  prophet 
speaks  with  authority,  not  by  argument,  as  a  representative  of  the 
God  his  hearers  acknowledge.  The  analogous  Old  Testament 
form  is  rather  to  be  sought  in  Wisdom  literature.  But  if  so,  the 
conception  of  Wisdom  is  found  to  have  altered  ;  with  a  new  world 
in  which  the  Greek  takes  tlie  intellectual  lead  Wisdom  can  no 
longer  be  mere  reflection,  but  must  arm  itself  with  argument.  In 
the  passage  from  the  Essays  of  Old  Testament  Wisdom  to  the 
Epistles  named  after  Romans  and  Hebrews  we  have  passed  from 
Oriental  to  Western  philosophy. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SPOKEN  RHETORIC  :  AND  THE  '  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMY ' 

The  department  of  Oratory,  or  Spoken  Rhetoric,  is  represented 
in  the  Bible  partly  by  the  elaborate  speeches  already  noted  in  the 
Drama  of  ^ob,  attractive  by  their  flowing  elo- 
sioS Rhetoric  quence  and  their  pointed  gnomic  sayings.  There 
are  again  numerous  speeches  scattered  through  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  which,  however,  cannot  well  be  appre- 
ciated from  the  literary  standpoint,  owing  to  the  condensed  form 
in  which  they  are  reported.  Perhaps  here  also  should  be  reck- 
oned, in  a  class  by  themselves,  the  formal  Prayers,  or  Addresses 
to  God,  of  which  Solomon's  Dedicatory  Prayer,  and  the  apocryphal 
Prayer  of  Manasses  are  the  chief  examples.  But  the  department 
includes  one  work  of  the  highest  literary  importance  in  the  fifth 
book  of  the  Pentateuch,  called  liy  its  Greek  name  of  Deuteronomy. 

This  book  of  Deuteronomy  might  have  for  its  second  title  '  The 

Orations  and  Songs  of  Moses  before  his  ascent  of  Pisgah.'     The 

vast  historic  importance  of  the  book,  from  its  in- 

Deuteronomy  as     fl^j^nce  on  later  Biblical  writers,  and  the  difficult 

a  literary  work  ' 

questions  surrounding  its  origin,  have  tended  to 
divert  attention  from  the  Hterary  interest  attaching  to  its  contents.' 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  other  work  in  which  so  much  is  gained  by 
attempting  to  read  the  whole  at  a  sitting.  For  this  exercise  some 
preparation  should  be  made,  in  the  way  of  separating  the  substance 
from  accessories.     To  begin  with,  there  are  some  long  parenthetic 

1  It  may  be  well  to  remind  the  reader  that  questions  of  litenir}'  history  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  present  work.  The  analysis  of  Deutfioiiomy  is  analysis  of  the  book 
as  it  stands,  apa:  t  from  any  question  how  it  has  reached  its  present  form. 

444 


Xll-XXVl 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  445 

explanations,  which  are  obviously  not  to  be  understood  as  part  of 
the  speeches  in  which  they  occur  :  in  modern  phraseology  they 
are  foot-notes,  and  they  should  be  marked  off.'  Other  verses 
should  be  separated  as  prefaces,  titles,  colophons,  and  the  like.- 
But  in  addition  to  these  brief  passages  there  is  a  lengthy  section 
of  fifteen  chapters  which  may  be  understood  as  the  '  Book 
of  the  Covenant '  that  is  being  mentioned  continually  in 
the  speeches ;  however  important  in  itself,  this  section  should,  in 
such  an  exercise  as  I  am  describing,  be  taken  as  read,  and  not 
allowed  to  disturb  the  succession  of  orations.  When,  with  these 
preparations,  the  whole  book  is  reviewed  at  a  sitting,  an  intense 
interest  is  thrown  upon  the  orations  from  the  pathetic  situation  in 
which  they  are  delivered  :  the  leader  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  wan- 
derings alone  realising  that  promised  land  from  which  he  alone 
is  excluded.  This  thought  from  time  to  time  breaks  out  in  the 
cry  —  "The  Lord  was  angry  with  me  for  your  sakes  "  ;  and  when 
not  spoken  in  words  it  is  none  the  less  present  as  inspiration  of 
the  passionate  appeals  and  denunciations  with  which  Moses  seeks 
to  make  the  Covenant,  of  which  he  has  been  the  interpreter,  a 
power  with  the  people  when  he  is  no  longer  present  to  uphold  it. 
There  is  also  a  crescendo  of  interest  throughout  the  book  :  narra- 
tive review,  appeal,  ceremonial  and  terrible  denunciation,  farewell 
and  personal  tenderness,  a  climax  of  song,  simple  story  of  the 
solemn  and  pathetic  end.  Read  in  any  way,  Deuteronomy  reveals 
its  rhetoric  richness  ;  read  at  a  single  sitting,  it  is  seen  to  be  ora- 
tory arranged  to  produce  all  the  effect  of  Drama. 

First  Oration  i.  6-iv.  40 

Moses'  Announcement  of  his  Deposition 

The  people  are  indicated  as  gathered  together  in  the  deep  hol- 
low that  makes  the  bed  of  the  Jordan,  on  its  eastern  side.  Moses, 
standing  before  them,  commences  in  the  calm  tone  of  historic  sur- 

1  They  are:  ii.  10-12;  ii.  20-3;   iii.  9  and  11  and  again  14;  x.  6-9. 

2  See  throughout  analysis  in  the  Literary  Index. 


446  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

vey.  He  goes  to  the  central  incident  of  the  people's  history  — 
the  giving  of  the  law  on  Horeb  —  and  tells  how  the  first  move- 
ment forward  revealed  the  growing  numbers  of  the  people,  so 
that  he  could  no  longer  support  the  cumbrance  and  burden  and 
strife  of  so  vast  a  nation. 

The  Lord,  the  God  of  your  fathers,  make  you  a  thousand  times  so 
many  more  as  ye  are,  and  bless  you,  as  he  hath  promised  you ! 

It  thus  became  necessary  to  appoint  captains  of  hundreds  and 
fifties  and  tens ;  and  in  such  organised  form  the  people  passed 
through  the  great  and  terrible  wilderness,  and  reached  Kadesh- 
Barnea.  There  the  order  came  to  advance  on  the  foe.  But 
though  the  spies  sent  on  to  explore  brought  back  word  of  a  good 
land,  yet  they  made  the  heart  to  melt  with  their  tale  of  cities  great 
and  fenced  up  to  heaven,  and  children  of  the  Anakim  :  until  the 
people  forgot  the  Lord  their  leader  in  the  wilderness.  Moses 
reviews  how  the  Lord's  wrath  brake  forth  at  the  murmuring,  and 
he  sware  that  none  save  the  faithful  spies  should  enter  the  land  : 
the  children  and  little  ones  should  alone  inherit.  Here  for  the 
first  time  comes  the  sad  plaint  that  the  Lord  was  angry  with  Moses 
for  the  people's  sake,  and  he,  too,  must  not  pass  over  Jordan.  The 
history  continues  to  tell  of  the  presumptuous  courage  that  went  up 
to  the  battle  without  the  Lord,  and  was  visited  with  defeat  and 
rout.  Then  there  is  the  turning  back  to  the  wilderness,  and  the 
eight  and  thirty  years  wandering  while  all  the  men  of  war  of  that 
generation  were  being  gradually  consumed  :  a  wandering,  never- 
theless, that  lacked  not  the  Lord's  watchfulness. 

The  Lord  thy  God  hath  blessed  thee  in  all  the  work  of  thy  hand  : 
he  hath  known  thy  walking  through  this  great  wilderness :  these 
forty  years  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  been  with  thee,  thou  hast  lacked 
nothing. 

With  the  crossing  of  the  brook  Zered  the  new  era  begins  :  the 
dread  and  the  fear  of  Israel  falls  upon  the  peoples.  In  vain  Sihon 
king  of  Heshbon  and  Og  king  of  Bashan  resist :  their  cities  are 
taken,  their  people  smitten  and  extirpated,   their  land  divided 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  447 

among  the  tribes  that  had  much  cattle.  It  now  appears  how  these 
signs  of  Jehovah's  favour  to  his  people  stirred  the  personal  hopes 
of  Moses. 

And  I  besought  the  Lord  at  that  time,  saying,  O  Lord  God,  thou 
hast  begun  to  show  thy  servant  thy  greatness,  and  thy  strong  hand : 
for  what  god  is  there  in  heaven  or  in  earth  that  can  do  according  to 
thy  works,  and  according  to  thy  mighty  acts?  Let  me  go  over,  I 
pray  thee,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that  goodly 
mountain,  and  Lebanon.  But  the  Lord  was  wroth  with  me  for  your 
sakes,  and  hearkened  not  unto  me :  and  the  Lord  said  unto  me, 
Let  it  suffice  thee;  speak  no  moi:^  unto  me  of  this  matter.  Get  thee 
up  into  the  top  of  Pisgah,  and  Hft  up  thine  eyes  westward,  and  north- 
ward, and  southward,  and  eastward,  and  behold  with  thine  eyes :  for 
thou  shalt  not  go  over  this  Jordan.  But  charge  Joshua,  and  encour- 
age him,  and  strengthen  him  :  for  he  shall  go  over  before  this  people. 

So,  then,  the  office  of  Moses  is  to  be  ended  :  the  words  he  has 
commanded  are  not  to  be  added  to,  nor  diminished  from  :  it  re- 
mains that  the  people  shall  keep  them,  and  this  shall  be  their 
wisdom  and  their  understanding  in  the  sight  of  the  peoples,  for 
no  people  can  have  a  god  so  nigh  or  statutes  so  wise  as  theirs. 
But  they  must  remember  the  occasion  of  the  lawgiving,  and  how 
the  mountain  burned  with  fire  unto  the  heart  of  heaven,  and  they 
heard  the  voice  but  saw  no  form ;  they  must  take  heed  lest  they 
make  the  form  of  anything  in  heaven  or  earth,  to  worship  it ;  and 
lest  when  they  behold  the  sun  and  moon  and  all  the  host  of 
heaven  their  hearts  be  lifted  up  and  they  worship  these  —  these 
which  the  Lord  has  divided  unto  all  the  peoples  under  the  whole 
heaven,  whereas  Israel  he  has  chosen  for  his  own  inheritance. 
And  he  will  be  jealous  over  the  people  with  whom  he  has  made 
his  covenant. 

For  ask  now  of  the  days  that  are  past,  which  were  before  thee, 
since  the  day  that  God  created  man  upon  the  earth,  and  from  the 
one  end  of  heaven  unto  the  other,  whether  there  hath  been  any  such 
thing  as  this  great  thing  is,  or  hath  been  heard  like  it?  Did  ever 
people  hear  the  voice  of  God  speaking  out  of  the  midst  of  the  fire, 
as  thou  hast  heard,  and  live?     Or  hath  God  assayed  to  go  and  take 


448  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

him  a  nation  from  the  midst  of  another  nation,  by  temptations,  by 
signs,  and  by  wonders,  and  by  war,  and  by  a  mighty  hand,  and  by  a 
stretched  out  arm,  and  by  great  terrors,  according  to  all  that  the 
Lord  your  God  did  for  you  in  Egypt  before  your  eyes?  Unto  thee 
it  was  shewed  that  thou  mightest  know  that  the  Lord  he  is  God ; 
there  is  none  else  beside  him.  Out  of  heaven  he  made  thee  to  hear 
his  voice,  that  he  might  instruct  thee :  and  upon  earth  he  made  thee 
to  see  his  great  fire;  and  thou  heardest  his  words  out  of  the  midst 
of  the  fire.  And  because  he  loved  thy  fathers,  therefore  he  chose 
their  seed  after  them,  and  brought  thee  out  with  his  presence,  with 
his  great  power,  out  of  Egypt;  to  drive  out  nations  from  before  thee 
greater  and  mightier  than  thou,  to  bring  thee  in,  to  give  thee  their 
land  for  an  inheritance,  as  at  this  day.  Know  therefore  this  day, 
and  lay  it  to  thine  heart,  that  the  Lord  he  is  God  in  heaven  above 
and  upon  the  earth  beneath :  there  is  none  else.  And  thou  shalt 
keep  his  statutes,  and  his  commandments  which  I  command  thee 
this  day,  that  it  may  go  well  with  thee,  and  with  thy  children  after 
thee,  and  that  thou  mayest  prolong  thy  days  upon  the  land,  which 
the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee,  for  ever. 

V-  '-^*  Second  Oration 

The  Delivery  of  the  Covenant  to  the  Levites  and  Elders 

The  second  oration  of  Moses  is  connected  with  a  public  cere- 
mony :  the  handing  over  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  into  the 
custody  of  the  Levites  and  Elders.  The  scene  of  the  preceding 
oration  is  repeated,  and  Moses  appears,  with  officials  grouped 
round  him  representing  the  Levites  and  Elders,  holding  in  his 
hands  the  Covenant  of  the  Lord,  now  for  the  first  time  reduced 
to  writing.  As  in  the  former  speech,  he  goes  for  a  starting-point 
to  the  scene  at  Horeb ;  he  recites  the  commandments  one  by 
one  as  delivered  by  the  great  Voice  amid  fire  and  darkness ;  and 
he  reminds  the  people  how  they  came  to  him  with  words  of  panic  : 

We  have  seen  this  day  that  God  doth  speak  with  man,  and  he  liveth. 
Now  therefore  why  should  we  die? 

Their  petition  was  that  Moses  might  stand  in  their  stead  before  the 
Lord,  and  all  that  the  Lord  commands  by  him  they  will  do.    Now 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  449 

therefore  all  the  separate  commandments  and  statutes  and  judg- 
ments of  which  Moses  has  thus  been  the  interpreter  have  been 
gathered  into  one  Covenant,  the  book  Moses  holds  in  his  hands. 
His  task  is  to  commend  it  to  their  obedience  before  they  hear  it 
read.     He  commences  with  the  great  Name. 

Hear,  O  Israel :  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  :  and  thou  shalt 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul, 
and  with  all  thy  might.  And  these  words,  which  I  command  thee 
this  day,  shall  be  upon  thine  heart :  and  thou  shalt  teach  them  dili- 
gently unto  thy  children,  and  shalt  talk  of  them  when  thou  sittest  in 
thine  house,  and  when  thou  walkest  by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest 
down,  and  when  thou  risest  up.  And  thou  shalt  bind  them  for  a 
sign  upon  thine  hand,  and  they  shall  be  for  frontlets  between  thine 
eyes.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  doorposts  of  thy  house, 
and  upon  thy  gates.  And  it  shall  be,  that  when  the  Lord  thy  God 
shall  bring  thee  into  the  land  which  he  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  to 
Abraham,  to  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob,  to  give  thee;  great  and  goodly 
cities,  which  thou  buildedst  not,  and  houses  full  of  all  good  things, 
which  thou  filledst  not,  and  cisterns  hewn  out,  which  thou  hewedst 
not,  vineyards  and  olive  trees,  which  thou  plantedst  not,  and  thou 
shalt  eat  and  be  full;   then  beware  lest  thou  forget  the  Lord. 

On  the  contrary,  when  their  children  ask  them  in  the  days  to 
come,  what  mean  these  statutes  and  judgments,  they  shall  tell  how 
they  were  Pharaoh's  bondmen  in  Egypt,  and  how  Jehovah  brought 
them  out  with  wonders  great  and  sore,  and  gave  them  these  com- 
mandments to  keep  :  and  it  shall  be  their  righteousness  if  they 
observe  the  commandments  of  their  God. 

This  Covenant  shall  be  their  distinction  among  the  nations. 
The  Lord  will  cast  out  the  nations  before  them  :  —  not  suddenly, 
lest  the  beasts  of  the  field  increase  upon  them ;  but  by  little  and 
by  little  will  he  cast  them  out.  They  shall  make  no  covenant  with 
them,  nor  give  them  sons  and  daughters  in  marriage. 

For  thou  art  an  holy  people  unto  the  Lord  thy  God :  the  Lord 
thy  God  hath  chosen  tjiee  to  be  a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above 
all  peoples  that  are  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  Lord  did  not  set 
his  love  upon  you,  nor  choose  you,  because  ye  were  more  in  number 


450  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

than  any  people;  for  ye  were  the  fewest  of  all  peoples:  but  because 
the  Lord  loveth  you,  and  because  he  would  keep  the  oath  which  he 
sware  unto  your  fathers,  hath  the  Lord  brought  you  out  with  a 
mighty  hand,  and  redeemed  you  out  of  the  house  of  bondage. 

The  orator  turns  to  the  past  to  find  ground  for  emphasising 
the  keeping  of  the  Covenant. 

Thou  shalt  remember  all  the  way  which  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  led 
thee  these  forty  years  in  the  wilderness,  that  he  might  humble  thee, 
to  prove  thee,  to  know  what  was  in  thine  heart,  whether  thou  would- 
est  keep  his  commandments,  or  no.  And  he  humbled  thee,  and  suf- 
fered thee  to  hunger,  and  fed  thee  with  manna,  which  thou  knewest 
not,  neither  did  thy  fathers  know;  that  he  might  make  thee  know 
that  man  doth  not  live  by  bread  only,  but  by  everything  that  pro- 
ceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  doth  man  live.  Thy  raiment 
waxed  not  old  upon  thee,  neither  did  thy  foot  swell,  these  forty  years. 
And  thou  shalt  consider  in  thine  heart,  that,  as  a  man  chasteneth  his 
son,  so  the  Lord  thy  God  chasteneth  thee.  And  thou  shalt  keep 
the  commandments  of  the  Lord  thy  God,  to  walk  in  his  ways,  and 
to  fear  him.  For  the  Lord  thy  God  bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land, 
a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  fountains  and  depths,  springing  forth 
in  valleys  and  hills;  a  land  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  vines  and  fig 
trees  and  pomegranates;  a  land  of  oil  olives  and  honey;  a  land 
wherein  thou  shalt  eat  bread  without  scarceness,  thou  shalt  not  lack 
anything  in  it;  a  land  whose  stones  are  iron  and  out  of  whose  hills 
thou  mayest  dig  brass.  And  thou  shalt  eat  and  be  full,  and  thou 
shalt  bless  the  Lord  thy  God  for  the  good  land  which  he  hath  given 
thee.  Beware  lest  thou  forget  the  Lord  thy  God,  in  not  keeping  his 
commandments,  and  his  judgements,  and  his  statutes,  which  I  com- 
mand thee  this  day :  lest  when  thou  hast  eaten  and  art  full,  and  hast 
built  goodly  houses,  and  dwelt  therein;  and  when  thy  herds  and  thy 
flocks  multiply,  and  thy  silver  and  thy  gold  is  multiplied,  and  all  that 
thou  hast  is  multiplied ;  then  thine  heart  be  lifted  up,  and  thou  for- 
get the  Lord  thy  God,  which  brought  thee  forth  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage;  who  led  thee  through  the  great 
and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  were  fiery  serpents  and  scorpions, 
and  thirsty  ground  where  was  no  water;  who  brought  thee  forth 
water  out  of  the  rock  of  flint;  who  fed  thee  in  the  wilderness  with 
manna,  which  thy  fathers  knew  not;  that  he  might  humble  thee 
and  that  he  might  prove  thee,  to  do  thee  good  at  thy  latter  end : 


SrOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  451 

and  thou  say  in  thine  heart,  My  power  and  the  might  of  mine  hand 
hath  gotten  me  this  wealth.  But  thou  shalt  remember  the  Lord  thy 
God,  for  it  is  he  that  giveth  thee  power  to  get  wealth;  that  he  may 
establish  his  covenant  which  he  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  as  at  this  day. 

Moses  turns  to  the  future.  They  are  this  day  to  pass  over  Jor- 
dan, and  soon  they  will  see  the  nations,  even  the  tall  sons  of  Anak, 
going  down  before  them.  But  let  them  beware  lest  they  say  in 
their  heart :  "  For  my  righteousness  hath  the  Lord  brought  me 
into  the  land."  Not  for  their  righteousness,  but  for  the  wicked- 
ness of  them  that  dwell  in  the  land.  Not  for  their  righteousness, 
for  they  have  been  ever  a  stiff-necked  generation  :  and  the  orator 
gathers  into  one  single  view  all  the  outbreaks  of  rebellion  and  sin 
which  had  marred  the  history  of  the  people  in  the  wilderness. 
Yet  why  this  rebellious  spirit  ? 

What  doth  the  Lord  thy  God  require  of  thee,  but  to  fear  the  Lord 
thy  God,  to  walk  in  all  his  ways,  and  to  love  him,  and  to  serve  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul,  to  keep  the 
commandments  of  the  Lord,  and  his  statutes,  which  I  command 
thee  this  day  for  thy  good?  Behold,  unto  the  Lord  thy  God  be- 
longeth  the  heaven,  and  the  heaven  .of  heavens,  the  earth,  with  all 
that  therein  is.  Only  the  Lord  had  a  delight  in  thy  fathers  to  love 
them,  and  he  chose  their  seed  after  them,  even  you  above  all  peo- 
ples, as  at  this  day. 

Moses  speaks,  not  to  children  which  have  not  known,  but  to  those 
who  have  seen  all  the  works  of  the  Lord  done  upon  Egypt,  and 
how  the  Lord  their  God  is  God  of  gods,  and  Lord  of  lords,  the 
great  God,  the  mighty,  the  terrible.  Let  them  therefore  circum- 
cise their  hearts,  and  so  go  over  and  possess  the  good  land. 

For  the  land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not  as  the  land  of 
Egypt,  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and 
wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs;  but  the  land, 
whither  ye  go  over  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of  hills  and  valleys,  and 
drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven :  a  land  which  the  Lord  thy 
God  careth  for;  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  thy  God  are  always  upon  it, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  year  even  unto  the  end  of  the  year. 


452  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OE  RHETORIC 

If,  then,  the  people  keep  faithfully  the  Covenant  of  the  Lord,  he 
will  give  them  the  rain  in  its  season,  the  former  rain  and  the  latter 
rain,  and  the  land  shall  yield  her  increase  ;  but  if  they  turn  aside 
and  serve  other  gods,  the  heavens  shall  be  shut  up,  and  the  land 
shall  not  yield  her  fruit,  and  they  shall  perish  quickly  from  off  the 
good  land  their  God  has  given  them. 

Therefore  shall  ye  lay  up  these  my  words  in  your  heart  and  in  your 
soul ;  and  ye  shall  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  your  hand,  and  they 
shall  be  for  frontlets  between  your  eyes.  And  ye  shall  teach  them 
your  children,  talking  of  them,  when  thou  sittest  in  thine  house,  and 
when  thou  walkest  by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when 
thou  risest  up.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  doorposts  of 
thine  house,  and  upon  thy  gates;  that  your  days  may  be  multiplied, 
and  the  days  of  your  children,  upon  the  land  which  the  Lord  sware 
unto  your  fathers  to  give  them,  as  the  days  of  the  heavens  above 
the  earth. 

Fresh  promises  follow  of  rewards  for  faithfulness  :  nations  greater 
and  mightier  than  themselves  driven  out  before  them,  a  border 
from  the  wilderness  to  Lebanon,  from  the  hinder  sea  to  the  river 
Euphrates,  —  every  place  where  the  sole  of  their  foot  shall  tread 
shall  be  theirs.  In  conclusion  Moses  refers  to  the  blessing  and 
the  curse,  which  are  to  be  the  sanctions  of  the  Covenant ;  and 
then  must  have  come  the  time  when  he  would  hand  over  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant  in  the  eyes  of  the  whole  nation,  to  the  Levites 
and  Elders  around  him,  to  be  read  by  them  before  the  people  on 
that  day  and  many  a  day  afterwards. 

xxviii  Third  Oration 

At  the  Rehearsal  of  the  Blessing  and  the  Curse 

When  the  fifteen  chapters  containing  the  Book  of  the  Covenant 
are  concluded,  a  succession  of  paragraphs  follow  which  need  close 
attention.     First  we  have  an  ordinance  formally  appoint- 
ing the  Ceremonial  of  the  Blessing  and  Curse ;  and  this 
is  a  provision  for  the  future,  since  the  places  designated  —  Mounts 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  453 

Ebal  and  Gerizim — are  on  the  other  side  of  Jordan.     Next  fol- 
low two  verses  in  which  it  is  said  that  Moses  and  the 
priests  the  Levites  spake  unto  all  Israel,  to  the  effect  that 
they  had   that  day  become   the  Lord's  people,  and  must  keep 

his  commandments.     Then  verses  describe  how  Moses 

11-14 
"  charged  the  people  the  same  day,"  the  point  of  the 

charge  being  the  division  of  the  tribes  —  six  for  the  mountain  of 
the  Curse,  and  six  for  the  mountain  of  the  Blessing ;  the  descrip- 
tion brings  out  the  antiphonal  character  of  the  ceremony,  the 
Levites  speaking,  and   the  people   responding   with  an 
Amen.     Then  follow  the  Curses  in  this  full  ritual  form. 
But,  instead  of  a  similar  series  of  Blessings,  we  find  the  matter  of 

the  Blessings  put  in  oratorical  language,  which  oratorical 

^  xxviii 

language  continues  into  the  matter  of  the  Curses.     The 

only  way  of  satisfactorily  interpreting  such  a  succession  of  para- 
graphs is  to  suppose  a  Rehearsal  of  the  Ceremony,  the  tribes 
being  stationed  upon  opposite  slopes  in  some  spot  resembling  the 
mountains  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim  ;  and,  when  the  ceremony  has 
proceeded  as  far  as  the  conclusion  of  the  Curses,  Moses  —  since  it 
is  only  a  rehearsal  —  interrupts  it,  and  takes  the  whole  into  his 
own  hands.     This  gives  us  the  third  oration. 

Moses  describes  how,  if  the  people  observe  the  commandments 
of  their  God,  they  shall  be  blessed  in  city  and  in  field,  in  the  fruit 
of  their  body  and  the  fruit  of  their  ground  and  their  catde,  in 
basket,  in  kneading-trough,  when  they  come  in  and  when  they  go 
out,  and  in  all  that  they  do. 

The  Lord  shall  open  unto  thee  his  good  treasury  the  heaven  to 
give  the  rain  of  thy  land  in  its  season,  and  to  bless  all  the  work  of 
thine  hand :  and  thou  shalt  lend  unto  many  nations,  and  thou  shall 
not  borrow.  And  the  Lord  shall  make  thee  the  head,  and  not  the 
tail;  and  thou  shalt  be  above  only,  and  thou  shalt  not  be  beneath; 
if  thou  shalt  hearken  unto  the  commandments  of  the  Lord  thy  God. 

But  if  the  people  shall  not  hearken  unto  the  voice  of  the  Lord 
their  God,  then  curses  shall  come  upon  them  and  overtake  them  : 
curses  in  city  and  field,  in  basket  and  kneading-trough,  in  the  fruit 


454  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

of  body  and  of  cattle  and  of  field,  curses  when  they  come  in  and 
when  they  go  out.  Discomfiture  and  rebuke,  consumption,  fever, 
inflammation,  fiery  heat,  the  sword,  blasting  mildew,  shall  pursue 
them  until  they  perish. 

And  thy  heaven  that  is  over  thy  head  shall  be  brass,  and  the  earth 
that  is  under  thee  shall  be  iron.  The  Lord  shall  make  the  rain  of 
thy  land  powder  and  dust :  from  heaven  shall  it  come  down  upon 
thee,  until  thou  be  destroyed.  The  Lord  shall  cause  thee  to  be 
smitten  before  thine  enemies  :  thou  shall  go  out  one  way  against 
them,  and  shalt  flee  seven  ways  before  them :  and  thou  shalt  be 
tossed  to  and  fro  among  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth. 

There  shall  be  madness,  and  blindness,  and  astonishment  of  heart ; 
groping  at  noontide  as  the  blind  gropeth  in  darkness ;  sons  and 
daughters  shall  be  borne  into  captivity,  and  the  eyes  of  parents 
shall  look  and  fail  with  longing  for  them  all  the  day ;  but  there 
shall  be  nought  in  the  power  of  their  hand  ;  for  they  shall  be  only 
oppressed,  and  crushed  alvvay,  and  they  shall  be  mad  for  the  sight 
of  their  eyes  which  they  shall  see. 

Thou  shalt  carry  much  seed  out  into  the  field,  and  shalt  gather  little 
in;  for  the  locust  shall  consume  it.  Thou  shalt  plant  vineyards  and 
dress  them,  but  thou  shalt  neither  drink  of  the  wine  nor  gather  the 
grapes;  for  the  worm  shall  eat  them.  Thou  shalt  have  olive  trees 
throughout  all  thy  borders,  but  thou  shalt  not  anoint  thyself  with 
the  oil;  for  thine  olive  shall  cast  its  fruit.  Thou  shalt  beget  sons 
and  daughters,  but  they  shall  not  be  thine;  for  they  shall  go  into 
captivity. 

The  stranger  in  their  midst  shall  mount  higher  and  higher  as  they 
go  down  lower  and  lower:  and  all  because  they  have  not  heark- 
ened unto  the  voice  of  their  God. 

Because  thou  servedst  not  the  Lord  thy  God  with  joyfulness,  and 
with  gladness  of  heart,  by  reason  of  the  abundance  of  all  things: 
therefore  shalt  thou  serve  thine  enemies  which  the  Lord  shall  send 
against  thee,  in  hunger,  and  m  thirst,  and  in  nakedness,  and  in  want 
of  all  things:  and  he  shall  jiut  a  yoke  of  iron  upon  thy  neck,  until 
he  have  destroyed  thee.  The  Lord  shall  bring  a  nation  against 
thee  from  far,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as  the  eagle  flicth ;  a  nation 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  455 

whose  tongue  thou  shalt  not  understand;  a  nation  of  fierce  coun- 
tenance, which  shall  not  regard  the  person  of  the  old,  nor  shew 
favour  to  the  young:  and  he  shall  eat  the  fruit  of  thy  cattle,  and  the 
fruit  of  thy  ground,  until  thou  be  destroyed :  which  also  shall  not 
leave  thee  corn,  wine,  or  oil,  the  increase  of  thy  kine,  or  the  young 
of  thy  flock,  until  he  have  caused  thee  to  perish.  And  he  shall  be- 
siege thee  in  all  thy  gates,  until  thy  high  and  fenced  walls  come 
down,  wherein  thou  trustedst,  throughout  all  thy  land :  and  he  shall 
besiege  thee  in  all  thy  gates  throughout  all  thy  land,  which  the  Lord 
thy  God  hath  given  thee.  And  thou  shalt  eat  the  fruit  of  thine  own 
body,  the  flesh  of  thy  sons  and  of  thy  daughters  which  the  Lord  thy 
God  hath  given  thee;  in  the  siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith 
thine  enemies  shall  straiten  thee.  The  man  that  is  tender  among 
you,  and  very  delicate,  his  eye  shall  be  evil  toward  his  brother,  and 
toward  the  wife  of  his  bosom,  and  toward  the  remnant  of  his  chil- 
dren which  he  hath  remaining :  so  that  he  will  not  give  to  any  of 
them  of  the  flesh  of  his  children  whom  he  shall  eat,  because  he  hath 
nothing  left  him;  in  the  siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith  thine 
enemy  shall  straiten  thee  in  all  thy  gates.  The  tender  and  delicate 
woman  among  you,  which  would  not  adventure  to  set  the  sole  of  her 
foot  upon  the  ground  for  delicateness  and  tenderness,  her  eye  shall 
be  evil  toward  the  husband  of  her  bosom,  and  toward  her  son,  and 
toward  her  daughter;  and  toward  her  young  one  that  cometh  out 
from  between  her  feet,  and  toward  her  children  which  she  shall 
bear;  for  she  shall  eat  them  for  want  of  all  things  secretly:  in  the 
siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith  thine  enemy  shall  straiten  thee 
in  thy  gates. 

If  thou  wilt  not  observe  to  do  all  the  words  of  this  law  that  are 
written  in  this  book,  that  thou  mayest  fear  this  glorious  and  fearful 
name,  The  Lord  Thy  God;  then  the  Lord  will  make  thy  plagues 
wonderful,  and  the  plagues  of  thy  seed,  even  great  plagues,  and  of 
long  continuance,  and  sore  sicknesses,  and  of  long  continuance. 
And  he  will  bring  upon  thee  again  all  the  diseases  of  Egypt,  which 
thou  wast  afraid  of;  and  they  shall  cleave  unto  thee.  Also  every 
sickness,  and  every  plague,  which  is  not  written  in  the  book  of  this 
law,  them  will  the  Lord  bring  upon  thee,  until  thou  be  destroyed. 
And  ye  shall  be  left  few  in  number,  whereas  ye  were  as  the  stars  of 
heaven  for  multitude;  because  thou  didst  not  hearken  unto  the  voice 
of  the  Lord  thy  God.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  as  the  Lord 
rejoiced  over  you  to  do  you  good,  and  to  multiply  you;  so  the  Lord 
will  rejoice  over  you  to  cause  you  to  perish,  and  to  destroy  you;   and 


456  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

ye  shall  be  plucked  from  off  the  land  whither  thou  goest  in  to  pos- 
sess it.     And  the  Lord  shall  scatter  thee  among  all  peoples,  from 
the  one  end  of  the  earth  even  unto  the  other  end  of  the  earth ;   and 
.  there  thou  shalt  serve  other  gods,  which  thou  hast  not  known,  thou 

nor  thy  fathers,  even  wood  and  stone.  And  among  these  nations 
shalt  thou  find  no  ease,  and  there  shall  be  no  rest  for  the  sole  of  thy 
foot :  but  the  Lord  shall  give  thee  there  a  trembling  heart,  and  fail- 
ing of  eyes,  and  pining"  of  soul :  and  thy  life  shall  hang  in  doubt 
before  thee;  and  thou  shalt  fear  night  and  day,  and  shalt  have  none 
assurance  of  thy  life :  in  the  morning  thou  shalt  say,  Would  God  it 
were  even !  and  at  even  thou  shalt  say.  Would  God  it  were  morning ! 
for  the  fear  of  thine  heart  which  thou  shalt  fear,  and  for  the  sight  of 
thine  eyes  which  thou  shalt  see.  And  the  Lord  shall  bring  thee 
into  Egypt  again  with  ships,  by  the  way  whereof  I  said  unto  thee, 
Thou  shalt  see  it  no  more  again :  and  there  ye  shall  sell  yourselves 
unto  your  enemies  for  bondmen  and  for  bondwomen,  and  no  man 
shall  buy  you. 

xxix-xxxi.  8  Fourth  Oration 

The  Covenant  in  the  Land  of  Moab 

The  fourth  oration  has  this  title  in  the  text,  although  the  scene 
appears  to  be  the  same.  After  a  brief  historic  survey,  Moses 
seems  to  review  the  different  classes  of  people  standing  before  him. 

Ye  stand  this  day  all  of  you  before  the  Lord  your  God;  your  heads, 
your  tribes,  your  elders,  and  your  officers,  even  all  the  men  of  Israel, 
your  little  ones,  your  wives,  and  thy  stranger  that  is  in  the  midst  of 
thy  camps,  from  the  hewer  of  thy  wood  unto  the  drawer  of  thy  water : 
that  thou  shouldest  enter  into  the  covenant  of  the  Lord  thy  God. 

We  are  thus  led  to  the  special  point  of  this  day's  speech.  It  is 
personal,  as  distinct  from  national  religion.  Moses  fears  lest  there 
may  be  some  man  or  woman,  or  some  family  or  tribe,  who  may 
nourish  idolatry  in  their  hearts,  and  think  to  escape  in  the  general 
righteousness ;  — 

lest  there  should  be  among  you  a  root  that  beareth  gall  and  worm- 
wood; and  it  come  to  pass,  when  he  heareth  the  words  of  this  curse, 
that  he  bless  himself  in  his  heart,  saying,  I  shall  have  peace,  though 
I  walk  in  the  stubbornness  of  mine  heart. 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  457 

Moses  declares  that  God  will  separate  that  man  or  that  woman 
unto  evil  out  of  all  the  tribes  of  Israel,  to  bring  upon  him  all  the 
curses  of  the  Covenant.  As  for  such  a  tribe  or  family :  the 
stranger  from  a  far  land,  the  children  of  the  days  to  come,  shall 
wonder  to  see  the  plagues  of  its  land,  and  how  it  is  brimstone, 
and  salt,  and  a  burning,  like  the  ruin  of  Sodom,  and  they  shall 
ask,  Wherefore  hath  the  Lord  done  thus  unto  this  land?  And 
they  shall  say.  Because  they  forsook  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  the 
God  of  their  fathers.  The  secret  things  of  the  sin  belong  unto 
the  Lord  our  God ;  but  the  judgment  when  it  is  revealed  will 
belong  to  us  and  to  our  children  for  ever.^ 

But  Moses  has  additional  words  of  mercy  to  speak,  as  well  as  of 
judgment.  When  all  these  things  are  come  upon  them,  the  bless- 
ing and  the  curse,  and  they  call  them  to  mind  among  all  the 
nations  whither  they  have  been  driven,  then  if  they  turn  with  all 
their  heart  unto  the  Lord  he  will  turn  their  captivity,  and  gather 
their  outcasts  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  heaven,  and  bring  them 
again  into  the  land  of  their  fathers,  and  do  them  good,  and  put 
these  curses  upon  their  enemies  :  if  only  they  turn  unto  the  Lord 
with  all  their  heart  and  with  all  their  soul. 

For  this  commandment  which  I  command  thee  this  day,  it  is  not  too 
hard  for  thee,  neither  is  it  far  off.  It  is  not  in  heaven,  that  thou 
shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go  up  for  us  to  heaven,  and  bring  it  unto 
us,  and  make  us  to  hear  it,  that  we  may  do  it?  Neither  is  it  beyond 
the  sea,  that  thou  shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go  over  the  sea  for  us, 
and  bring  it  unto  us,  and  make  us  to  hear  it,  that  we  may  do  it? 
But  the  word  is  very  nigh  unto  thee,  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  thy  heart, 
that  thou  mayest  do  it. 

The  Leader  of  the  people  thus  reaches  the  point  of  his  final 
appeal.  He  calls  heaven  and  earth  to  witness  against  them  this 
day,  that  he  has  set  before  them  life  and  death,  the  blessing  and 
the  curse.     Therefore,  he  cries  to  them, 

1  This  is  the  only  point  where  the  argument  of  the  orations  is  at  all  difficult. 
The  line  of  thought  is  given  by  verse  i8  (of  chapter  xxix) :  the  distinction  of 
(a)  man  or  woman,  (b)  family  or  tribe;  then  verses  20-2I  follow  the  judgment  on 
((j),  veises  22-28  the  judgment  on  (b). 


458  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

Choose  life,  that  thou  mayest  live,  thou  and  thy  seed :  to  love  the 
Lord  thy  God,  to  obey  his  voice,  and  to  cleave  unto  him :  for  he  is 
thy  life,  and  the  length  of  thy  days :  that  thou  mayest  dwell  in  the 
land  which  the  Lord  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  to  Abraham,  to  Isaac, 
and  to  Jacob,  to  give  them. 

There  remains  the  personal  farewell.  Moses  tells  how  he  is  that 
day  an  hundred  and  twenty  years  old ;  and  the  mystic  strength 
that  had  supported  the  people  in  the  wilderness,  so  that  their  feet 
swelled  not  these  forty  years,  is  no  longer  vouchsafed  to  their 
leader  :  "  I  can  no  more  go  out  and  come  in."  And  the  Lord  has 
said  to  him  that  he  shall  not  go  over  Jordan.  But  while  physical 
strength  is  failing,  the  words  on  the  old  man's  lips  are  of  strength 
and  courage  :  a  worn-out  leader  puts  courage  into  the  nation 
before  him,  and  into  Joshua,  whom  he  installs  as  leader  in  his 
place.  Thus  with  his  cry  of  "  Be  strong,  and  of  good  courage," 
and  "  The  Lord  shall  go  before  you,"  Moses  retires  from  his  office 
of  leader,  and  leaves  Joshua  in  his  place. 

The  orations  of  Moses  are  concluded  :  but  not  yet  his  words. 
That  very  day,  as  he  is  presenting  himself  with  Joshua  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  Tent  of  Meeting,  the  call  comes  to 
Moses'  Song  ^^  j^-g  j^essage  to  the  people  in  the  form  of  Song. 

XXXll.  1-43  o  r        r  o 

His  doctrine  shall  drop  as  the  rain,  his  speech  distil 
as  the  dew,  while  he  sings  of  Jehovah  the  Rock,  the  God  of  faith- 
fulness. When  the  nations  were  divided,  Israel  was  retained  by 
the  Creator  for  himself. 

For  the  Lord's  portion  is  his  people : 

Jacob  is  the  lot  of  his  inheritance. 

He  found  him  in  a  desert  land. 

And  in  the  waste  howling  wilderness . 

He  compassed  him  about,  he  cared  for  him, 

He  kept  him  as  the  apple  of  his  eye : 

As  an  eagle  that  stirreth  up  her  nest, 

That  flutt:reth  over  her  young, 

He  spread  abroad  his  wings,  he  took  them. 

He  bare  them  on  his  pinions : 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  459 

The  Lord  alone  did  lead  him, 

And  there  was  no  strange  god  with  him. 

He  made  him  ride  on  the  high  places  of  the  earth, 

And  he  did  eat  the  increase  of  the  field; 

And  he  made  him  to  suck  honey  out  of  the  rock, 

And  oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock; 

Butter  of  kine,  and  milk  of  sheep, 

With  fat  of  lambs, 

And  rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan,  and  goats, 

With  the  fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat; 

And  of  the  blood  of  the  grape  thou  drankest  wine. 

The  joyousness  of  the  song  clouds  over,  as  it  tells  how  Jeshurun 
waxed  fat  and  kicked,  and  moved  the  Lord  to  jealousy  with  new 
gods,  that  came  up  but  yesterday,  whom  their  fathers  did  not 
know.  The  fire  of  Divine  anger  burns  as  from  the  lowest  pit, 
devouring  the  increase  of  the  earth.  Visions  of  mischiefs  heaped 
upon  the  faithless  people  pass  before  us,  of  arrows  spent  upon 
them,  wasting  hunger,  burning  heat,  teeth  of  beasts,  poison  of 
crawling  things,  without  the  Sword  bereaving  and  terrors  within  : 
only  short  of  entire  destruction  does  the  judgment  stop,  lest  the 
adversary  should  misdeem,  and  think  that  their  hand,  and  not 
Jehovah's  wrath,  had  done  all.  And  how  blind  and  void  of  wis- 
dom must  the  nation  be  not  to  see  the  meaning  of  it  all,  and  that 
their  Rock  has  forsaken  them  ! 

For  their  rock  is  not  as  our  Rock, 

Even  our  enemies  themselves  being  judges. 

And  the  imagery  flows  forth  to  paint  the  loathly  gods  to  which 
Israel  has  given  preference  —  things  of  rottenness  like  grapes  of 
Sodom,  bitter  as  clusters  of  gall,  poisonous  as  wine  of  dragons  :  — 
until,  by  a  bold  transition,  the  description  is  made  to  produce 
revulsion  in  the  mind  of  God  himself.  He  thinks  with  compla- 
cency of  vengeance  yet  stored  among  his  treasures,  that  he  may 
use  once  more  on  his  people's  side  :  waiting  till  their  strength  is 
exhausted,  and  their  last  hope  gone,  and  then  raising  himself  in 
wrath  to  scorn  their  helpless  idols,  and  recompense  vengeance  to 


460  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

their  adversaries.     And  so  with  the  joy  of  Jehovah  returned  to  his 

fallen  people,  this  Song  of  the  Rock  of  Israel  concludes. 

Then  the  end  comes.     The  whole  people  understand  it,  and  all 

are  waiting  to  see  their  Leader  set  out  on  the  mystic  journey  on 

„^  „  .  ,  which  none  may  accompany  him.  Heads  of  the 
The  Passing  of  j  r      j 

Moses,  xxxii.48-  tribes  stand  out  from  the  masses  of  the  people  and 
^'^^^  line  the  route  by  which  Moses  must  pass.     The 

first  sight  of  the  whole  nation,  which  he  has  ruled  so  long,  seems 
to  kindle  in  Moses  a  vision,  which  reaches  us  only  dimly,  in  his 
words  of  Jehovah  coming  forth  from  amidst  his  holy  ones,  a  fiery 
law  at  his  right  hand,  the  holy  ones  of  the  peoples  sitting  at  his 
feet.  Then,  passing  along  the  leaders  of  the  tribes,  he  speaks  last 
words  to  each  :  stirring  words  of  past  battle  cries,  or  pregnant 
sayings  destined  to  be  watchwords  in  the  future.  Reuben,  his 
men  never  few.     Judah,  sufficient  of  his  hands.     Levi  — 

Who  said  of  his  father,  and  of  his  mother, 

I  have  not  seen  him; 
Neither  did  he  acknowledge  his  brethren, 
Nor  knew  his  own  children, 

when  he  took  sides  with  Jehovah  at  the  waters  of  strife.  Benjamin, 
beloved  of  the  Lord,  who  dwelleth  between  his  shoulders.  Bless- 
ings on  the  princely  Joseph. 

Blessed  of  the  Lord  be  his  land : 

For  the  precious  things  of  heaven,  for  the  dew, 

And  for  the  deep  that  coucheth  beneath, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  fruits  of  the  sun, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  growth  of  the  moons. 

And  for  the  chief  things  of  the  ancient  mountains. 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  everlasting  hills, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  earth  and  the  fulness  thereof. 

And  the  good  will  of  him  that  dwelt  in  the  bush. 

Zebulun,  blessed  in  his  going  out  over  the  seas,  and  Issachar  in 
his  tent  life  at  home.  Naphtali,  with  the  blessings  of  the  western 
sea  and  the  sunny  south ;  Asher,  dipping  his  foot  in  the  oil  of  his 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  461 

own  vineyards,  shod  with  the  iron  and  brass  of  his  mines.  The 
whole  line  of  the  tribes  past,  Moses  lifts  hands  and  voice  in  the 
final  blessing. 

There  is  none  like  unto  God,  O  Jeshurun, 
Who  rideth  upon  the  heaven  for  thy  help. 
And  in  his  excellency  on  the  skies. 
The  eternal  God  is  thy  dwelling-place, 
And  underneath  are  the  everlasting  arms. 

From  the  height  of  lyric  song  we  drop  to  simple,  bare  prose : 
fittest  of  forms  to  convey  the  solitary  journey  from  which  there  is 
to  be  no  return ;  the  going  up  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  the  long 
gaze  over  the  land  of  promise  ;  the  lonely  death  ;  the  burial  in 
the  sepulchre  that  no  man  knoweth.  So  the  days  of  weeping  in  the 
mourning  for  Moses  were  ended. 


APPENDICES 


Page 

I.  Literary  Index  to  the  Bible 465 

II.  Tables  of  Literary  Forms 499 

III.  On  the  Structural  Printing  of  Scripture        .        .512 

IV.  Use  of  the  Digression  in  'Wisdom'    .        .        .         .521 


General  Index         527 


APPENDIX    I 

LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 

In  this  first  Appendix  the  whole  Bible,  and  the  moi-e  important  parts 
of  the  Apocrypha,  are  divided  up  into  the  separate  literary  compositions  of 
which  they  are  composed.  The  form  of  each  composition  is  indicated,  and, 
in  cases  that  admit  of  it,  a  suitable  title  is  sttggested.  The  arrangement 
follows  the  order  in  which  the  books  of  the  Bible  stand ;  the  Appendix  will 
therefore  serve  as  a  guide  to  Bible  reading  where  it  is  desired  to  read  from 
the  literary  point  of  view. 

Reference  figures  {in  brackets^  are  added  to  previous  pages  in  which 
particular  compositions  have  been  discussed.  The  Appendix  zuill  therefore 
serve  also  as  an  Index  to  the  present  work. 

It  is  suggested  to  the  student  to  mark  with  pencil  in  his  copy  of  the 
Revised  Version  the  divisions  and  titles  here  suggested,  or  to  make  divisions 
and  titles  of  his  oivn.  It  is  an  ifurnense  help  to  literary  appreciation  to 
have  the  form  of  a  piece  of  literature  conveyed  directly  to  the  eye  {as  is 
done  by  the  pri filer  in  all  books  except  the  Bible),  instead  of  having  to 
collect  the  form  by  inference  while  reading. 


465 


466 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


GENESIS 

History  Part  I:   Formation  of  the  Chosen  Nation.  —  Primitive  History 

Deals  with  the  period  preceding  the  appearance  of  the  Chosen  People  as 
a  Nation.     An  Historic  Framework  enclosing  Epic  Incidents  (244). 


i-xi 
xii-1 


First  Beginnings  of  the  World 
The  Patriarclial  Succession 


Merged  in  this  History,  yet  sepiirahle  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 
forms  of  Epic} 

EPIC  STORIES 

i-ii.  J  The  Creation 

a.  4-iii  The  Temptation  in  the  Garden  of  Eden 

iv.  J-iS  Cain  and  Abel 

vi.  g-ix.  ly  The  Flood 


EPIC  CYCLES 

OF  ABRAHAM. —  Call  of  Abraham  (^xii.  i-gi)  —  Sarai  and  Pharaoh 
(xii.  10-20)  —  The  Parting  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  and  the  Raid  on  Sodom 
{xiii-xiv)  —  Sarai,  Ilagar,  and  the  Promised  Seed  {xv-xvii)  —  The  "jftidg- 
ment  on  Sodom  {xviii-xix.  28)  —  Abiinelech  and  Sarah  (jtj-)  —  Birth  of  Isaac 
and  casting  off  of  Ishmacl  {xxi.  1-21)  —  Offering  of  Isaac  {xxii.  i-jg)  — 
Burial  of  Sarah  {xxiii) — Wooing  of  Rebekah  {xxiv) 

OF  ISAAC Birth  of  Isaac  and  casting  off  of  Ishmael  (xxi.  1-21)  — 

Offering  of  Isaac   (xxii.    i-i(f)  —  Burial  of  Sarah   {xxiii)  —  IVooing  of 
Rebekah  (xxiv) 

OF  JACOB. —  Guileful  obtaining  of  Isaac's  blessing  (xxvii.  1-40)  — 
Flight  of  Jacob  {xxvii.  41-xxviii)  —  IIoio  Jacob  served  under  I.aban  (xxix- 
xxxii.  2)  — Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Esau  (xxxii.  j-xxxiii)  — Blessing  and 
Death  of  Jacob  (xlvii.  28-I) 

EPIC  HISTORY 
xxxvii.  2-j6 


continued 
xxxix.  i—xlvi. 
J  and  xlvi.  28- 
xlvii.  12 


Joseph  and  his  Brethren  (222) 


1  The  reader  is  warned  against  the  common  mistake  of  confusing  Epic  with 
Fiction.     (Above,  page  221.) 


EXOD  US  —  DE  UTER  OiYOM  Y 


467 


EXODUS,   LEVITICUS,   NUMBERS 

History  Part  II :  Migration  of  the  Chosen  Nation  to  the  Land  of 
Promise.  —  Constitutional  History 

Deals  with  the  Chosen  Nation  up  to  their  arrival  at  the  Land  of  Promise. 
Successive  Revelations  of  Law,  and  Incidents  associated  with  these  (245). 


Exod.  i-xviii 
Exod.  from  xix 

and  Leviticus 
Numbers 


Slavery  in  Egypt,  Deliverance,  and  Journey  to  Sinai 
Constitution  of  the  Nation  at  Sinai 

The  March  from  Sinai  and  the  Thirty-eight  Years'  Wan- 
dering 


Merged  in  this  History,  but  separable  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 

forms  of  Epic. 

EPIC  HISTORY 
Exodus  i.  8-vi.  13 

continued 

vi.  2S—XI    and 

xii.  2i-jg  and 

xiii.  I'j-xv.  21 


Moses  and  the  Plagues  of  Egypt 


MIXED  EPIC 
Numb,  xxii-xxiv  \     The  Story  of  Balaam  (^22^  and  34^  note^ 


DEUTERONOMY 


The  Orations  and  Songs  of  Moses 

An  Historic  Framework  enclosing  the  Farewell  Orations  and  Songs  of 
Moses.  (Fully  analysed  above,  Chapter  XX.)  Portions  described  ifi  italics 
may  be  omitted  in  the  exercise  of  taking  in  Deuteronomy  at  a  single  sitting.^ 


i.  6-iv.  40 


Title  page  to  the  lohole  book 

Preface  to  the  First  Oration 

First  Oration  :   Moses'  Announcement  of  his  Deposition 


1  Several  passages  (i.  2;  ii.  10-12;  ii.  20-3;   iii.  9,  11,  14:  x.  6-9)  should  be 
marked  off  from  the  orations  as  '  explanatory  footnotes.' 


468 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


tv.  41-3 

44-9 
V.  i-xi.  32 

xii-xxvi 
xxvii.  1-8 


g-26 


XXIX.  I 

xxix.  2-xxxi.  8 
xxxi.  Q-13 

xxxi.  14—30 
xxxii.  1-43 
xxxii.  44-7 

xxxii.  48-xxxiii.  I 
xxxiii.  2-29 


Editorial  N'ote  connecting  the  first  and  second  Orations 
Preface  to  the  Second  Oration 

Second  Oration :  The  Delivery  of  the  Covenant  to  the 
Levites  and  Elders 

The  Book  of  the  Covenant 

Ordinance  appointing  the  Ceremony  of  the  Blessing  and 

the  Curse 
Rehearsal  of  the  Ceremony  {see  page  4J2')  interrupted  by 
Third  Oration :  At  the  Rehearsal  of  the  Blessing  and  the 

Curse 

Preface  to  the  Fourth  Oration 

Fourth  Oration :  The  Covenant  in  the  Land  of  Moab 
Editorial  Note :  Arrangements  for  the  regular  readitig 
of  the  Covenant 

Preface  to  the  Song  of  Moses 

The  Song  of  Moses :  Jehovah  our  Rock 

Colophon  to  the  Song  of  Moses 

Preface  to  the  Last  Words  of  Moses 

The  Last  Words  of  Moses  [2-3  and  26-9  General; 
4-25  Blessings  on  particular  tribes,  a  Document  in- 
corporated, of  which  4-5  is  the  title] 

Editorial  Conclusion  :  The  Passing  of  Moses 


JOSHUA,  JUDGES,  RUTH,  I  SAMUEL 

History  Part  III:    The  Chosen  Nation  in  its  Efforts  towards  Secular 
Government.  —  Incidental  History 

Deals  with  the  Conquest  of  the  Promised  Land  and  Tentative  Approach  to 
Secular  Government.    Epic  matter  with  connecting  Historic  Framework  (246). 


Joshua 
Judges 
I  Samuel 


Conquest  of  Canaan,  including  [xiii-xxii]  Division  of  the 

Land 
Sporadic    attempts    at    secular    government :    including 

[viii.  22  and  ix]  first  idea  of  secular  kingship 
Gradual  estalilishment  of  secular  kingship  and  rise  of 

Prophets  to  represent  the  Theocracy 


JOSHUA  — I  SAMUEL 


469 


The  main  interest  in  this  group  of  books  is  the  Epic  element,  to  which  the 
rest  serves  as  connecting  matter. 


yttdges  Hi.  12-30 
iv^v 

vi-viii.  28 
viii.  2g-ix 
X.  6-xii.  6 
xvii-xviii 
xix-xxi 


EPIC  STORIES 

Ehud's  Assassination  of  Eglon 

War  of  Deborah  and  Barak  against  Sisera 

Gideo7i  and  the  Midianites 

Crowniitg  of  Abimelech  by  the  A  fen  of  Shechetn 

Jephlhah  and  the  Ammonites 

MicaKs  Images  and  the  Danish  Migration 

The  Benjamite  War 


EPIC  CYCLES 

OF  JOSHUA.—  The  Spies  attd  the  Woman  of  Jericho  {ii) —The  Pas- 
sage of  the  Jordan  (iii-iv) —  The  Siege  of  Jericho  (v.  13-vi)  —  Siege  of  Ai  and 
Sin  of  Achan  {ini-viii.  2g)  — Embassy  of  the  Gibeonites  {ix)  — League  of  the 
Five  Kings  {x.  i-2y')  —  Joshua's  Farezvell  (xxiii-xxiv) 

OF  SAMSON. — Birth  of  Samson  {Judges  xiii.  2-2 j) — Samson  and  the 
Woman  of  Timnah  {xiv-xv.  8)  —  The  Jawbone  of  an  Ass  {xv.  g-20)  — 
The  Gates  of  Gaza  (xvi.  i-j)  —  Samson  and  Delilah  {xvi.  4-22)  —  Death 
of  Samson  {xvi.  23-31') 

OF  SAMUEL.  —  Birth  of  Samuel  (/  Sam.  i-ii.  11)  —  Call  of  Samuel 
and  Dooming  of  Eli  {ii.  12-iv)  —  The  Ark  and  the  Philistines  {v-vii.  i)  — 
The  Anointing  of  Saul  and  the  Retirement  of  Samttel  {viii-xii) —  The  Anoijit- 
ing  of  David  {xvi.  1-13') —  The  Witch  of  Endor  {xxviii.  3-2^) 

OF  SAUL. —  The  Anointing  of  Saul  and  the  Retirement  of  Samuel 
{I  Sam.  viii-xii)  —  The  Raid  on  Michmash  {xiii.  i^-xiv.  46)  —  War  with 
the  Amalekites  and  Breach  bet'ioeen  Samuel  and  Saul  {xv)  —  The  Witch  of 
Endor  {xxviii.  3-2J) 


Ruth 

I  Samuel  xvi.  14 
to  xxviii.  2  con- 
tinued xxix  to 
II  Samuel  i 


EPIC  HISTORIES 


The  Story  of  Ruth  :  An  Idyl  {23J-8) 
The  Feud  of  Saul  and  David 


470 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


II  SAMUEL,  I  AND  II  KINGS 

History  Part  IV :  The  Chosen  Nation  under  a  Secular  Government  and 
a  Theocracy  side  by  side.  —  Regular  History 

Deals  with  the  period  from  the  Settlement  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  Captiv- 
ity.    Systematic  accomit  of  successive  reigns  (247). 


II  Samuel  ii  to 

I  Kings  xi 

I  Kings  xii  to 

II  Kings  xvii 

II  Kings 
from  xviii 


Reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 

Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  side  by  side 

Kingdom  of  Judah  and  its  Captivity 


Merged  in  this  History,  yet  separable  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 
forms  of  Epic,  especially  Epic  Prophecy. 

EPIC  HISTORY 

II  Sam.  xiii-xx     I     The   Feud  between   David'' s   Sons   and  the  Revolt  of 
I  Absalom 


II  Samuel  xi.  2 

to  xii.  2j 

xxiv 
I  Kingsxiii.  1-32 

xiv.  1-/8 

XX.  35-43 

xxii.  1-40 


PROPHETIC  STORIES 
Nathan,  David,  and  Bathsheba 

Gad  and  the  Numbering  of  the  People 

The  Man  of  God  and  the  Old  Prophet  of  Bethel 

Ahijah  and  the  Wife  of  j^eroboam 

The  Son  of  the  Prophet  and  Ahab 

Micaiah  and  the  Battle  of  Ramoth-gilead 

PROPHETIC  CYCLE 


OF  ELISHA.  —  Elisha's  Parti^ig  from  Elijah  {II  Kings  ii.  j-18)  — 
The  Ilea  ling  of  the  Waters  (ii.  ig-22) —  The  Mocking  Children  (ii.  23-j) 
—  The  Water  Trenches  (Hi.  4-2^)  —  The  Vessels  of  Oil  (iv.  1-7)  —  The 
Shunammite  Woman  (iv.  8-3'/')  — Death  in  the  Pot  (iv.  38-41')  —  The  Feed- 
ing of  the  Huttdred  Men  (iv.  42-4)  — The  Healing  of  Naa>nan  and  Leprosy  of 
Gehazi  (v)  —  The  Axe-head  that  swam  (vi.  i-y')  —  The  Expedition  to  arrest 
Elisha  (vi.  8-23)  —  The  Siege  of  Samaria  (vi.  24-vii.  26)  —  The  Shunam- 
mite Woman^s  Estate  (viii.  1-6) — HazaeVs  Visit  to  Elisha  (yiii.  y-15)  — 
Death  of  Elisha  (xiii.  14-21) 


CHR  ONI  CLE  S—  JOB 


471 


I  Kings  xvii-xix 
continued  xxi 
and  II  Kings 
i-ii.  i8 


PROPHETIC  EPIC 


The  History  of  Elijah  the  Tishbite 


CHRONICLES,  EZRA,  NEHEMIAH 

History  Part  V :  The  Chosen  Nation  as  a  Church.  —  Ecclesiastical 

History 

A  compilation  of  Historical  Excerpts,  Memoirs,  Documents,  etc.,  all  bear- 
ing upon  the  Ecclesiastical  Organisation  of  the  Nation  as  restored  after  the 
Exile  (248). 


I  Chr.-II  Chr.  ix 

II  Chr.  from  x 
Ezra  i-vi 

vii-x 
Neh.  i-vii 
viii-x 
xi-xiii 


Reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 

Kingdom  of  Judah  to  its  Captivity 

The    Return    under   Zerubbabel,    and    Building    of   the 

Temple 
The  Return  of  Ezra 

The  Return  of  Nehemiah  and  Building  of  the  Walls 
The  Covenant  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
Miscellaneous  Memoirs  of  the  Return 


ESTHER 

An  Epic  History  (230). 


iv-xiv 
xv-xxi 


JOB 

A  Dramatic  Parable  in  a  Frame  of  Epic  Story 
Fully  analysed  in  the  Introduction,  above,  pages  3-41. 
The  Story  Opens  > 

The  Dramatic  Parable 

Act       I :  Job's  Curse 

Act     II :  P'irst  Cycle  of  Speeches 

Act  III :  Second  Cycle  of  Speeches 


472  LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


xxu-xxx 
xxxi 

xxxii-xxxvii 
xxxviii-xlii.  6 

X Hi  from  7 


Act   IV :  Third  Cycle  of  Speeches  ^ 
Act     V :  Job's  Vindication 
Act    VI :  Interposition  of  Elihu 
Act  VII :  The  Divine  Intervention 

The  Story  Closes 


1  In  the  third  cyde  the  speeches  need  re-arrangement,  by  the  transference  of 
three  verses  (2-4  of  Chapter  xxvi)  to  the  commencement  of  the  next  chapter,  and 
the  consequent  alterations  of  headings  to  speeches. 

Then  atiswered  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  and  said — 
Chapter  xxii 

Then  yob  answered  and  said — 
Chapters  xxiii,  xxiv 

Then  answered  Bildad  the  Shuhite,  and  said — 
Chapter  xxv,  continued  in  xxvi.  5-14 

Then  Job  answered  and  said — 

Chapter  xxvi.  2-4,  continued  in  xxvii.  2-6 

Then  answered  Zophar  the  Naamathite,  and  said — 
Chapter  xxvii.  7  to  end  of  Chapter  xxviii 

Then  Job  answered  and  said — 
Chapters  xxix,  xxx 

This  conjectural  re-arrangement  of  the  speeches  is  based  on  the  following  con- 
sideration : 

1.  The  utmost  caution  should  be  exercised  in  accepting  conjectural  emenda- 
tions affecting  the  sense  of  a  passage ;  but  the  same  principle  does  not  apply  to 
changes  in  the  arrangement  of  speeches,  especially  as  the  sacred  books  have 
passed  through  centuries  in  which  the  principles  of  parallelism  were  lost. 

2.  All  critics  recognise  the  difficulty  of  the  text  as  it  stands  between  Chapters 
xxvi  and  xxviii  (inclusive),  which  has  the  effect  of  making  Job  take  up  a  position 
antagonistic  to  his  former  contention  and  to  his  subsequent  words  :  and  some  com- 
mentators resort  to  violent  explanations,  such  as  prolonged  irony,  etc. 

3.  The  most  marked  feature  of  literary  style  in  the  book  is  its  extreme  parallel- 
ism ;  this  makes  it  most  improbable  that  the  third  colloquy  should  be  imperfect, 
by  the  omission  of  a  speech  from  Zophar,  and  a  reply  to  him  from  Job.  Moreover 
the  change  in  the  introductory  formula?  when  Chapters  xxvii  and  xxix  are  reached 
—  viz.  And  Job  again  took  up  his  parable  and  said  instead  of  the  usual  Job 
answered  and  said — is  very  suspicious. 

4.  The  conjecture  here  adopted  is  substantially  that  of  Griitz,  which  is  to  a 
large  extent  the  same  as  Cheyne's.  Some  eminent  critics  {e.g.  Davidson,  Driver) 
are  deterred  from  seeking  a  third  speech  for  Zophar  by  the  shortness  of  Bildad's 
third  speech  (xxv),  which  they  take  as  an  indication  that  the  controversy  is  becom- 
ing exhausted.  But  the  present  conjecture  lengthens  Bildad's  speech  and  removes 
this  objection. 


PSALMS 


473 


VI 

vii 
viii 
ix-x 

xi 

xii 

xiii 

xiv  =liii 

XV  =  xxiv.  1-6 

xvi 

xvii 

xviii 

xix 

XX 

xxi 
xxii 
xxiii 
xxiv 

XXV 

xxvi 
xxvii 
xxviii 
xxix 

XXX 

xxxi 
xxxii 


THE   PSALMS 
A  Collection  of  Lyrics  in  Five  Books 

Compare  above,  Chapters  V-VII  generally 
Book  I 


The  Meditative  and  the  Worldly  Life  (192) 

Ode:  The  Messiah  (150) 

A  Dramatic  Lyric  (179) 

A  Liturgy  of  Devotion  (168) 

Of  Consecration  :  A  Meditation 

A  Dramatic  Lyric  (177) 

A  Liturgy  of  Judgment  (168) 

Man  the  Viceroy  of  God  (70,  185) 

A  Dramatic  Lyric,  with  double  change  (182  note).- 

Acrostic 
Trust :  A  Meditation 
A  Dramatic  Lyric 
Judgment :   A  Meditation 
A  Rhapsodic  Meditation  on  Judgment  (184) 
The  Devout  Life  (loi) 
Trust :  A  Meditation 
Judgment :  A  Meditation 
Ode  :    David's  Song  of  Deliverance  (83) 
The  Heavens  above  and  the  Law  within  (91-8) 
(Antiphonal)  Benediction  on  the  King 
Benediction  on  the  King 
A  Dramatic  Lyric  (178) 
Jehovah's  Follower  (187) 

Anthems  for  the  Liauguration  of  Jerusalem  (lOO,  154) 
Liturgy  of  Devotion.  —  Acrostic 
Consecration :  A  Meditation 

A  Dramatic  Lyric,  with  double  change  (180,  186) 
A  Dramatic  Lyric 
Ode:  The  Thunderstorm  ("47) 
Anthem  for  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem  (154) 
A  Dramatic  Lyric  (duplicated:  page  182  note) 
A  Monody  of  Experience 


474 


LITEKARY  INDEX    TO    THE   BIBLE 


XXXIU 

xxxiv 

XXXV 

xxxvi 

xxxvii 

xxxviii 

xxxix 

xl  (including  Ixx) 

xli 


Festal  Hymn 

A  Liturgy  of  Thanksgiving  (167) 

An  Elegy  of  Denunciation  (159) 

The  Supreme  Evil  and  the  Supreme  Good  (97) 

Judgment :  A  Meditation.  —  Acrostic 

A  Monody  of  Experience 

A  Monody  of  Experience.  —  With  refrain 

A  Liturgy 

A  Monody  of  Experience 


Book  II 


xlii-xliii 
xliv 
xlv 
xlvi 

xlvii 

xlviii 

xlix 

1 

li 

lii 

liii 

liv 

Iv 

Ivi 

Ivii 

Iviii 

lix 

Ix  («ith  cviii) 

Ixi 

Ixii 

Ixiii 

Ixiv 

Ixv 

Ixvi 

Ixvii 

Ixviii 

Ixix 


Exile  Song  (63).  —  With  refrain 

An  Elegy 

Marriage  Hymn 

Occasional :  Deliverance  from  Sennacherib  (154,  57). 

With  refrain 
Accession  Hymn 

Occasional:  Victory  over  Sennacherib  (153) 
Man  that  is  in  Honour  :  A  Parable.  —  W^ith  refrain 
Ode:   On  Judgment  (150) 
Penitence:  A  Meditation  (94-5,  184  note) 
An  Elegy  of  Denunciation 
See  xiv 

A  Dramatic  Lyric 
An  Elegy  of  Denunciation 
A  Dramatic  Lyric.  —  With  refrain 
A  Dramatic  Lyric  (179)- — With  refrain 
An  Elegy  of  Denunciation  (189  note) 
A  W^ar  Ballad.  —  With  double  refrain 
Occasional:   Hymn  of  Defeat  and  Victory  (181  note) 
Exile  Song 

Liturgy  of  Devotion  (167).  —  With  refrain 
Exile  Song 

Judgment :  A  Meditation 
A  Liturgy  of  Praise  (164) 
Votive  Hymn 

Festal  Hymn  —  With  refrain 
Processional  Ode  (144) 
A  Dramatic  Lyric,  witli-transition  stage  (183  note  2) 


PSALMS 


475 


Ixx  (see  xl)  Elegy  of  Denunciation 

ixxi  A  Dramatic  Lyric 

Ixxii  Encomium  :  On  the  King 


Ixxiii 

Ixxiv 

Ixxv 

Ixxvi 

Ixxvii 

Ixxviii 

Ixxix 

Ixxx 

Ixxxi 

Ixxxii 

Ixxxiii 

Ixxxiv 

Ixxxv 

Ixxxvi 
Ixxxvii 
Ixxxviii 
Ixxxix 


Book  III 

The  Mystery  of  Prosperous  Wickedness 

An  Elegy  (158) 

A  Song  of  Judgment 

Occasional:   Deliverance  from  Sennacherib  (153) 

A  Monody  of  Experience  (175) 

National  Anthem  :  Of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  (139,  143) 

An  Elegy 

An  Elegy  (158). — With  refrain 

Festal  Hymn 

Elegy  of  Denunciation  (188) 

Elegy  of  Denunciation  ' 

A  Song  of  God's  House  (185) 

A  Dramatic   Lyric,  with  double  change  and  transition 

stage  (182) 
A  Liturgy  of  Supplication  (169) 
Salutation  to  Zion  (159) 
An  Elegy 
Ode:  On  the  Covenant  (149) 


xc 

xci 

xcii 

xciii 

xciv 

xcv-c 

ci 

cii 
j  ciii 
I  civ 


Book  IV 

Life  as  a  Passing  Day  ( 1 89) 

The  Shadow  of  the  Almighty 

Votive  Hymn 

Accession  Hymn  (161) 

A  Liturgy  of  Judgment  (167) 

Accession  Hymns.  — (For  xcix  see  page  61) 

Anthem  for  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem  (155) 

An  Elegy 

The  World  Within  and 

The  World  Without  (150-3) 

National  Anthem  :  Of  the  Undivided  Nation  in  Canaan 

(142-3) 
National  Anthem:   For  the  Captivity  (142-3) 


476 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE   BIBLE 


Book  V 


evil 

cviii  (see  Ix) 

cix 

ex 

exi-cxii 

exiii-cxviii 


exix 
cxx-cxxxiv 

cxx 

exxi 

cxxii 

cxxiii 

cxxiv 

cxxv 

cxxvi 
■\  cxxvii 

cxxviii 

cxxix 

cxxx 

cxxxi 

cxxxii 

cxxxiii 
Lcrxxiv 
cxxxv 
cxxxvi 

exxxvii 

exxxviii 

cxxxix 

exl 

exli 

exlii 

cxiiii 

cxliv 


exlv 
cxlvi-cl' 


Ode  :  Of  the  Redeemed  (65,  148).  —  With  double  refrain 

A  Dramatic  Lyric,  with  double  change 

An  Elegy  of  Denunciation  (159) 

Encomium  :  On  the  Ideal  King 

An  Acrostic  Hallelujah 

The  Hallel :  a  series  of  Hallelujah  Psalms  sung  as  one 

at  the  great  feasts.  —  (For  cxiv  see  page  59,  and  for 

cxvi  and  cxviii  pages  161,  162) 
The  Law:  An  Acrostic  Meditation  (183) 
The  Songs  of  Ascents  (170-3) 
Song  of  the  Exile  (171) 
The  Lord  thy  Keeper  (172,  54) 
Pilgrim  Song:  Salutation  to  Jerusalem  (172) 
Monody  of  the  Exile  (171) 
Monody  of  the  Exile  (171) 
Pilgrim  Song:  Thoughts  on  Mount  Zion  (172) 
Monody  of  the  Exile  (171) 
Pilgrim  Song:   \York  and  Home  (172,  97) 
Pilgrim  Song:  Home  Life  (172) 
The  Exile's  Denunciation  (171) 
The  Exiled  Nation's  Liturgy  of  Penitence  (172) 
Pilgrim  Meditation:  On  Simplicity  (172) 
Temple  Hymn  (172,  155) 
Pilgrim  Song:  Of  Unity  (172) 

Temple  Song:  Benediction  of  the  Night  Watch  (172) 
Hallelujah  Psalm 
National   Anthem:    Of  the  Nation   in   the   Wilderness 

(142-4) 
Elegy  of  the  Exile  (157-S) 
Judgment :  A  Meditation 
A  Dramatic  Lyric  (77,  90,  178) 
An  Eleg)'  of  Denunciation 
Consecration :  A  Meditation 
A  Monody  of  Experience 
A  Monody  of  Experience  (176) 
A  Dramatic  Lyric,  with  double  change  and  refrain  (1S2 

note) 
Festal  Hymn.  —  Acrostic 
Series  of  Hallelujah  Psalms  that  can  be  sung  as  one 


PROVERBS 


477 


i.  j-6 
7 


THE    PROVERBS 

A  Miscellany  of  Wisdom  in  Five  Books 

Above,  pages  284-8,  291,  323-4 

I     Tiile  to  the  whole  collection 
Motto  to  the  whole  collection 


Book  I 
Sonnets  on  Wisdom  (284-6) 


1. 

8-9 

10-19 

20-33 

ii 

iii 

I-IO 

11-20 

21-6 

27-35 

iv. 

1-9 

10-19 

20-7 

V 

vi 

1-5 

6-1 1 

12-19 

20-35 

vii 

-viii 

Epigram 

Sonnet :  The  Company  of  Sinners  (273) 

Dramatic  Monologue :  Wisdom's  Cry  of  Warning 

Sonnet :   Wisdom  the  Preservative  from  Evil 

Sonnet:  The  Commandment  and  its  Reward  (277) 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  the  Prize  in  View 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Security 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Perversity 

Sonnet :  The  Tradition  of  Wisdom 

Sonnet :  The  Two  Paths 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Health 

Sonnet :  The  Strange  Woman 

Sonnet :  Suretyship 

Sonnet:  The  Sluggard  (280-1) 

A  Pair  of  Sonnets :  The  Sower  of  Discord 

Sonnet :  The  Folly  of  Adultery 

Dramatic  Monologue :  Wisdom  and  the  Strange  Woman 

Sonnet  of  Sonnets :  The  House  of  Wisdom  and  the 
House  of  Folly  [1-6  (Sonnet)  is  strophe  to  which 
13-18  is  antistrophe;  7-9  (Epigram)  is  strophe  to 
which  10-12  is  antistrophe] 


Book  II 

The  Proverbs  of  Solomon 

x-xxii.  lb 

x-xxii.  16  I    Collection  of  isolated  Unit  Proverbs:   no  appearance  of 

I  arrangement  (2S6) 


478 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book  III 


A    Wisdom  Epistle  {2S6) 


xxtt.  1J-21 

22-g 
xxiii.  1-3 

4-5 
6-8 
g-iS 
19-21 

26-S 

29-35 

xxiv.  I— 10 

11-12 

13-14 
13-22 

Postscript 

xxiv.  23-5 

30-4 


xxti.  ly-xxtv 

Superscription  to  the  Epistle 

Disconnected  Savings  \^Epigrams  and  Unit  Proverbs'\ 

Epigram :  Awe  before  Api>etite 

Epigram :  Transitoriness  of  Riches 

Epigram :  Hospitality  of  the  Evil  Eye  (262) 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Epigram :  Gluttony 

Discontucted  Savings 

Epigram :  The  Pit  of  Whoredom 

Sonnet:  Woes  of  Wine  (277-8) 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Epigram :  The  Duty  of  Rescue 

Epigram :  Wisdom  and  Honey  (262) 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Epigram :  Respect  of  Persons 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Sonnet :  The  Field  of  the  Slothful  (280-1) 


Book  IV 
Solomonic  Proverbs  collected  under  Hesekiah  {28/') 


xx^f-xxtx 


XXV.  I 

--7 
XXV.  S-xx-A.  2 
xx^-i.  3-12 

13-16 

17-26 

XX-A.  2J-XXZ'ii.22 

xxvii.  23-7 
xxviii-xxix 


Titie  to  Book  IV 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Kings 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Proverb  Ouster  :  On  Fools 

Proverb  Ouster :  On  Sluggards 

Proverb  Ouster :  On  Social  Pests 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Folk  Song  of  Good  Husbandry  (287) 

Disconnected  Proz'erbs 


PRO  VERBS— ECCLESIASTES 


479 


XXXI.  1-9 

10-31 


Book  V 

Shorter  Collections  (^287^ 

xxx-xxxi 

Proverbs  of  Agur.  [xxx.  1-4  Sonnet :  The  Unsearchable- 
ness  of  God  (278).  5-6  Epigram.  7-9  Number 
Sonnet :  The  Golden  Mean.  10  Unit  Proverb.  11- 
14  Sonnet:  An  Evil  Generation.  15-16  Number 
Sonnet:  Things  never  satisfied  (275).  17  Epigram. 
18-19  Number  Sonnet:  Things  not  to  be  known. 
20  Epigram.  21-3  Number  Sonnet:  Things  not  to 
be  borne.  24-8  Number  Sonnet :  Little  and  Wise, 
29-31  Number  Sonnet:  Things  stately  in  their 
going.  32-3  Epigram :  The  Restraining  of  Wrath] 
The  Oracle  of  Lemuel's  Mother  (262) 
Anonvmous  Acrostic  Sonnet :  The  Virtuous  Woman 


ECCLESIASTES,  OR  THE    PREACHER 

A  Suite  of  Five  Essays,  broken  by  Miscellaneous  Sayings 

Fully  analysed,  pages  293-304.     Compare  also  309-10,  323-4 


t.  I 
i.  2-1 1 
i.  i2-ii 

iii.  i-iv.  8 
iv.  g-v.  g 
V.  lo-vi.  12 
vii.  1—22 
vii.  23-ix.  16 

ix.  ij-xi.  6 
xi.  7-xii.  7 

xii.  8-14 


Title  to  the  zvhole  \^  founded  upon  the  first  essayl 
Prologue  :  All  is  Vanity 

Essay  I:    in  the   form  of  a  Dramatic   Monologue: 
Solomon's  Search  for  Wisdom 

Essay  II :  The  Philosophy  of  Times  and  Seasons 

Miscellaneous  Afaxims  of  Life 

Essay  III :  The  Vanity  of  Desire 

Miscellaneous  Paradoxes  of  Life 

Essay  IV:   The  Search  for  Wisdom,  with  Notes  by 

the  Way 
Miscellaneous  Proverbs  of  Life 
Essay  V :  Life  as  a  Joy  shadowed  by  the  Judgment 

[including  Sonnet  (xii.  1-7)  :  The  Coming  of  the 

Evil  Days] 
Epilogue  :  All  is  Vanity :  Fear  God 


480 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


1.  2-11.  7 
ii.  8-iii.  5 
iii.  6-v.  I 
V.  2-vi.  3 
vi.  4-vii.  9 
vii.  io-\-iu.  4 
viii.  5-14 


THE  SONG  OF  SONGS 
A  Suite  of  Seven  Dramatic  Idyls 

Fully  analysed  above,  Chapter  VIII 

Idyl       I :  The  Wedding-Day 

Idyl     II :  The  Bride's  Reminiscences  of  the  Courtship 

Idyl   III :  The  Day  of  Betrothal 

Idyl    IV :  The  Bride's  Troubled  Dream 

Idyl     V :  The  King's  Meditation  on  his  Bride 

Idyl    VI:  The  Bride's  Longing  for  her  Home  on  Lebanon 

Idyl  VII :  The  Renewal  of  Love  in  the  Vineyard  of  Leb- 
anon 


V.  1-7 
V.  8-30 


vii.  1-17 

vii.  i8-viii.  8 


vui.  9-1X.  7 
ix.  8-x.  4 


ISAIAH 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Seven  Books 

Book  I 

General  Prophecies 

i.  2-vi 

Discourse  :  The  Great  Arraignment  (329) 

Discourse :  The  Latter  Glory  and  the  Present  Judgment 

(330) 
Parable  of  the  Vineyard 
Lyric  Prophecy :  A  Sevenfold  Denunciation 
The  Prophet's  Call 

Book  II 

Prophecies  on  the  Unholy  Alliance 
vii-x.  4 

Prophecy  of  the  sign  'Immanuel'  (341  and  note) 

A  Cluster  of  Prophetic  Sentences  :  The  Fly  and  the  Bee 
(vii.  i8-jg)  —  7 he  Razor  {20)  — Butter  and  Honey 
(21-2)  —  Briers  and  Thorns  {2j-j)  —  A/aher-shalal- 
hash-baz  {viii.  1-4)  —  The  River  (j-8).  —  Above, 
pages  4/S-g 

Rhapsodic  Discourse :  Light  for  the  People  that  walk  in 
Darkness 

Lyric  Prophecy :  Doom  of  the  North  (334) 


ISAIAH 


481 


X.  5-XI1 


Book  III 
Prophecy  under  an  Assyrian  Invasion 

X.  s-xii 
I    Rhapsodic  Discourse :    The  Rod  of  the  Lord  and  the 
1  Reign  of  Peace  (386) 


xui-xiv.  23 
xiv.  24-7 

28-32 
xv-xvi 
xvii.  I-II 

12-14 
xviii 
xix 


XX 

xxi 

xxii.  1-14 

15-25 
xxiii 
xxiv-xxvii 


Book  IV 
A  Cycle  of  Judgment 

xiii-xxvii 
Doom  Song  on  Babylon 
Doom  Song  on  Assyria 
Doom  Song  on  Philistia 
Doom  Song  on  Moab 
Doom  Song  on  Damascus 
A  Doom  Song 

Doom  Song  on  Ethiopia  (with  Refrain) 
Prophecy  Cluster  :  Doom  Song  on  Egypt  (^1-17)  — followed 
by  a  series  of  Sentences  on  the  Conversion  of  Egypt 
{18,  ig-20,  21,  22,  23,  24-s)--^  Above,  pages  4ig-20 
Emblem  Prophecy  against  Ashdod 
Visions  of  Doom  :  The  Prophetic  Watchman  (355-8) 
Denunciation  :  The  Panic  of  the  Valley  of  Vision  (358) 
A  Personal  Denunciation 
Doom  Song  on  Tyre 
Climax  of  Book  IV :  A  Rhapsody  of  Judgment  (373-80) 


xxvni-xxxn 


xxvni 
xxix 

XXX 

xxxi-xxxii.  < 
xxxii.  9-20 


Book   V 
A   Cycle  of  the  Restoration  (426) 

xxviii-xxxv 
Discourses   in   the    form    of  Animadversions    upon    the 
Political  Situation   [an  Assyrian  Invasion  and  ques- 
tion of  the  Egyptian  Alliance]  as  a  background  for 
picturing  the  Redemption  and  the  Golden  Age  (426) 
f  The  Covenant  with  Death  (426) 
I   The  Nightmare  of  Judgment  upon  Ariel 
-j   The  Boaster  that  sitteth  still  (426) 
I   The  Horses  of  E.<,'vpt  and  the  Holy  One  of  Israel 
[  The  Women  that  are  at  ease 


482 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


Rhapsody  of  Salvation:  [i  Prelude,  2  Israel,  3  Pro- 
phetic Spectator,  7  Scenic,  10  God,  14  Sinners  in 
Zion,  15-24  Godly  in  Zion] 

Finale  to  Book  V :  The  Utter  Destruction  and  the  Great 
Redemption  (426-7) 

Book  VI 

The  Invasion  of  Sennacherib 

xxxvi-xxxix 

Historical  Excerpt :  Prophetic  History  of  the  Sennach- 
erib Crisis 


xl.  I-II 

Prelude 

xl.  i2-xlviii 

Phase       I 

xlix-1 

Phase     n 

li-lii.  12 

Phase   HI 

lii.  13-liii 

Phase    IV 

liv-lv 

Phase      V 

Ivi-lxii 

Phase    VI 

Ixiii-lxvi 

Phase  VII 

Book   VII 
Rhapsody  of  Zion  Redeemed 

xl-lxvi 
Fully  analysed  above.  Chapter  XVII 

The  Judgment  on  Babylon 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah  and    Desponding 

Zion 
The  Awakening  of  Zion 
The  Servant  of  Jehovah  Exalted 
V:  Zion  Exalted 

A  Redeemer  come  to  Zion 
Phase  VII :  Judgment  on  Zion  and  on  the  Nations 


JEREMIAH 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Ten  Books 

Book  I 
The  Prophet's  Call  and  Manifesto 


The  Prophet's  Call 

Jeremiah's  Manifesto :   Discourse  culminating  in  Rhap- 
sody of  Doom  and  Panic  (386-91) 


JEREMIAH 


483 


vii.  1-28 
vii.  29-viii.  3 
viii.  4-ix.  9 


ix.  10-16 
17-22 
23-6 

X.    1-16 

»7-25 


9-17 

xi.  i8-xii.  6 
xii.  7-17 


Book  II 

Miscellaneous  Discoitrses  and  Sentences 
vii-x 

Discourse :  The  Temple  of  the  Lord  are  we 

Discourse :  Tophet 

Rhapsodic  Discourse :  The  Hurt  of  the  Daughter  of 
my  People  [viii.  14  People,  16  Scenic,  17  God,  18 
Prophet,  19  Captive  People,  ig{b)  God,  20  Captive 
People,  21  (to  end)  Prophet  who  quotes  God] 

Discourse  :  A  Lamentation  for  the  Land 

Discourse  :  The  Mourning  Women 

Prophetic  {417)  Sentences  [23-4^  ^S~^'] 

Prophecy  Cluster  on  Idolatry  [i-io,  11,  12-16] 

Scene  of  Panic 

Book  III 

Prophecies  of  the  Missionary  yourney 
xi-xiii 

The  Prophet's  Commission :  The  Tour  of  Preaching  the 

Covenant 
Prophetic    Intercourse :    On   Judah's    Rejection    of  the 

Covenant 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Conspiracy  of  Anathoth 
Judah  and  his  Evil  Neighbours 


Emblem  Prophecy  :  The  Girdle  (336,  338)  ^ 

Book  IV 
The  Drought  and  other  Prophecies 


xiv-xv 

xvi 

xvii.  I— 12 
13-18 
19-27 


Rhapsody  of  the  Drought  (381-5) 
Prophetic  Intercourse  :  The  Doom  of  the  Land 
Prophetic  Sentences  \_/-2,  j-4,  j-S,  g-io,  i r,  i2'\ 
Prophetic  Intercourse  :  A  Prayer  under  Persecution 
Discourse  :   On  the  Sabbath 


1  Found  attached  to  the  prophecies  of  the  Missionary  Journey,  though  with  no 
necessary  connection. 


484 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book    V 
Discourses  Founded  on  Pottery 


jcznti-xx 


xriii.  I-17 
1&-23 


Emblem  Prophecy :  Potter  s  Qay  (336) 
Prophetic  Intercourse :  The  Conspiracy 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Potter's  Bottle  (337),  inclading 

(rs.  7-13)  a  Prophetic   Meditation   and  (14-lS)   a 

Prophetic  Curse 


Book    VI 
Message's  to  Rulers 


XXI— XX  III 


I1-14 

xrii.  1-9 

10-12 

20-30 

xxiii.  1—8 

9-40 


Prophetic  Response :   On  the  Approach  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's Army 
Message  to  the  Royal  House 
Message  to  the  Royal  House 
Discourse :  On  Shallum 
Discourse :  On  Jehoiakim 
Discourse :  On  Coniah 
Discourse :  The  Shepherds  of  Israel 
Discourse  :  On  False  Prophets 


Book   VII 


Occasional  and  Controversial  Prophecies 


xxiv-xxix 


zxnr 

XXT 

xxvi 
xxvii-xxTiii 


Emblem  Prophecy :  The  Figs  (336) 

The  Cup  of  the  Lord's  Fur>-  (354) 

Prophetic  Controversy :  Destruction  of  the  Temple 

Prophetic  Controversy :  The  Yoke 

Epistle :  To  the  Elders  of  the  Captivity 


JEREMIAH 


485 


XXX.  I— J 

XXX.  4-22 

XXX.  23-xxxi,  20 
xxxi.  21-40 


Book   VIII 
Prophecies  of  the  Restoration 

Preface  to  the  Eighth  Book 

Discourse  (with  Pendulum  Structure)  :  The  Restoration 

of  Judah  (332) 
Rhapsodic  Discourse :  The  Restoration  of  Israel 
Prophetic  Sentences  \^2i-2,  2^-6,  2^-8,  2g-^o,  31-4  (  The 

New  Covenant),  j^-y,  jS-40~\ 


xxxiv.  1-7 

8-22 

xxxv 
xxxvi 
xxxvii-xliv 

xlv 


Book  IX 

Incidental  and  Historical  Prophecies 

xxxii-xlv 

Incident :  The  Anathoth  Estate 

Incident :  The  Siege  of  the  Fenced  Cities 

Incident :  The  Hebrew  Servants 

Incident :  The  Rechabites 

Incident :  The  Burning  of  the  Roll 

Prophecy  merged  in  History :    Crisis  of  the  Siege  and 

Abduction  of  Jeremiah  to  Egypt  (341) 
Prophetic  Intercourse  :  Jeremiah  and  Baruch 


xlvi 

xlvii 

xlviii 

xlix.  1-6 
7-22 
23-7 
28-33 
34-9 

1-li 

lii-liii 


Book  X 

Dooms  of  the  A'ations 

xlvi-li 

Doom  of  Egypt  (Twofold) 

Doom  of  the  Philistines 

Doom  of  Moab 

Doom  of  the  Children  of  Ammon 

Doom  of  Edom 

Doom  of  Damascus 

Doom  of  Kedar  and  Hazor 

Doom  of  Elam 

Doom  of  Babylon  (337) 


Historical  Appendix  to  the  Works  of  yereviiah 


486 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


LAMENTATIONS 
A  Suite  of  Acrostic  Elegies  (157) 

EZEKIEL 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Three  Books  (430) 

Beck  I 

PropJucits  of  yudgBunt 


vi— vri 


xii.  1-16 
17-20 
21-8 

xiii 

xiv.  I -I  I 
12-23 

XV 

xvi 

xvii 

xviii 

xix 

XX.  1-44 

45-9 
xxi 
xxii 

xxiii 
xxiv.  1-14 

15-27 


Vision :  The  Prophet's  Call 

Emblem  Prophecy :  The  Mimic  Siege  (338-9) 

Discom^e :  Against  the  Land  of  Judah  (337-8) 

VISION:    JERUS-VLOI  t">"T)EK  JI-DGMENT   (343-5) 

Emblem  Prophecy :  Stuff  for  removing 
.Emblem  Prophecy:  Bread  of  Trembling 
Discourse  with  Proverb  Text 
Discourse :  Against  False  Prophets 
Prophetic  Response :  On  False  Enquirers 
Discourse :  On  Vicarious  Righteousness 
Parable :  Of  the  Vine  (345) 
Parable :  Of  the  Ungrateful  Spouse  (345) 
Parable :  Of  the  Eagle  and  the  Cedar  (345) 
Discourse :  The  Proverb  of  Fathers  and  Chfldren 
Discourse :  A  Lamentation  for  the  Princes  of  Israel 
Prophetic  Response :   A  Vain  Enquiry 
Discourse :  The  Forest  of  the  South 
Emblem  Prophecy :  The  Sword  (337) 
Discourse  :  The  Bloody  City 
Parable :  Oholah  and  Oholibah  (345) 
Parable:  Of  the  Caldron 
Emblem  Prophecy :  Death  of  the  Prophet's  Wife  (340) 


EZEKIEL  —  DANIEL 


487 


XXV 

xxvi-xxviii 


xxix-xxxii 


Book  II 

Dooms  of  the  Nations 

xxv-xxxii 

Cycle  of  Dooms  [1-7,  8-1 1,  12-14,  15-17] 

Threefold  Doom  on  Tyre  [xxvi;  xxvii;   xxviii.  1-19]  and 

Doom  on  Zidon  (359-61) 
Sevenfold  Doom  (361-3)  on  Egypt  [xxix.  1-16;    1 7-21 ; 

XXX.  1-19;    20-26;    xxxi;   xxxii.  1-16;    and  17-32] 


xxxm.  1-9 
10-20 

21-33 
xxxiv 

xxxv-xxxvi 
XXX  vii.  1-14 

15-28 
xxxviii-xxxix 

xl-xlviii 


Book  III 

Prophecies  of  the  Restoration 

xxxiii-xlviii 

Discourse :  The  Watchman 
Dialectic  Prophecy:   Repentance 
Discourse  :  News  of  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem 
Discourse :  The  Shepherds  of  Israel  (330) 
Discourse :  Mount  Seir  and  the  Mountains  of  Israel 
Vision :  The  Valley  of  Dry  Bones  (342) 
Emblem  Prophecy :  The  Joining  of  the  Sticks 
Discourse  ;  Gog  of  the  Land  of  Magog 

VISION:    JERUSALEM   RESTORED    (343-5) 


DANIEL 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Two  Books  (430) 

Book  I 

Prophetic  Incidents  and  Interpretations  of  Visions 


Prophetic  Incident :  Daniel  and  the  King's  Meat 
Vision  Interpretation  :  The  Image  and  the  Stone 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Burning  Fiery  Furnace 
Vision  Interpretation :  Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream  of  the 

Tree  cut  down 
Vision  Interpretation  :  The  Writing  on  the  Wall  (343) 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Den  of  Lions 


488 


LI  TEH  AH  Y  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book  II 
A   Cycle  of  Visions 


vu 
viii 


Vision  of  the  Four  Beasts  (343) 
Vision  of  the  Ram  and  the  He-goat  (343) 
Vision  Prophecy :  The  Time  of  Restoration  (343) 
Vision  Prophecy :  The  Time  of  the  End 


HOSEA 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Two  Books 

Book  I 
Gamer 
i-iii 
I    Emblem  Prophecy  of  Gomer  (340) 

Book  II 
The  Lord's  Controversy 


Vll 

viii 

.  1-6 

7-14 

ix. 

1-6 

ix. 

7-^ 

xi. 

i-ii 

xi. 

l2-xii 

xii 

-xiv.  8 

xiv.  g 

Discourse  culminating  in  a  Rhapsody  [v.  8  Panic,  9  God, 

vi.  1  People,  4  God] 
Discourse  of  Denunciation 

Discourse :  The  Idols  and  the  Triumph  of  Judgment 
Prophetic  Sentences  \j{ai),  J^p),  8-g{a),  g{b)-io,  11,  12, 

Discourse :  Joy  turned  to  Judgment 

Prophetic  Sentences  \ix.  7,  8,  g,  10,  11-12,  ij,  14,  fj, 

ib-17  :  X.  1-2,  s,  4,  j-6,  7-8,  g,  lo-ii,  12,  /J-/5] 
Dramatic  Prophecy :  The  Di\-ine  Vearning  (349-50) 
Discourse :  Jacob's  Doings  and  Recompense  ^ 
A  Drama  of  Repentance  (350-1) 
Epilogue  Sentence  to  Book  II 


1  Marginal  Reading  of  R.  V.  to  xi.  12 


JOEL  —  MICAH 


489 


JOEL 
A  Rhapsody  of  the  Locust  Plague  (369-73) 

AMOS 
A  Rhapsody  of  the  Judgment  to  come  (391-3) 

OBADIAH 
A  Doom  Prophecy  upon  Edom 

JONAH 
A  Prophetic  Epic  (240,  337-8) 

MICAH 
A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Two  Books 

Book  I 

Miscellaneous  Prophecies 


11.  1-5 
6-1 1 
12-13 


Rhapsody  of  Judgment  Approaching  [verse  8  The  Pro- 
phet, 10-16  Scenic] 
Discourse  :  Against  Oppression 
Discourse  :  Wickedness  seeking  to  silence  Prophecy 
Discourse  :  A  Vision  of  the  Breaking  Forth 
Discourse :  Against  Rulers  and  Prophets 
Discourse  :  The  Mountain  of  the  Lord's  House 

Book  II 
Dramatic  Prophecies 


vi.  1-8 
vi.  9-vii 


The  Lord's  Controversy  before  the  Mountains  (347) 
The  Lord's  Cry  and  the  Man  of  Wisdom  (34S-9) 


490 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE   BIBLE 


NAHUM 
A  Rhapsodic  Doom  Prophecy  upon  Nineveh 

HABAKKUK 

A  Prophetic  Collection 

I    Rhapsody  of  the  Chaldeans  (365-7) 
I    An  Ode  of  Judgment  (147) 

ZEPHANIAH 
A  Rhapsodic  Discourse  (120) 

HAGGAI 
Four  Occasional  Discourses,  dated 

ZECHARIAH 

A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Three  Books 

Book  I 
Miscellaneous  Discourses 


1.  1-6 
i.  7-vi.  8 
vi.  9-15 
vii.  1-7 
8-14 

via.  1-8 
9-17 
iS-23 


The  Prophet's  Manifesto 

Vision  Cycle  (427) 

Emblem  Prophecy  :  The  Crowning  of  Joshua 

Response:  On  the  Fasts  (421-2) 

Discourse  of  Denunciation(42i-2) 

Prophetic  Sentences  of  Jerusalem  Restored  {yiii.  1-2,  j, 

4-S,  6,  7-<?] 
Discourse :  The  Seed  of  Peace  for  the  Remnant  of  the 

People  (421-2) 
Prophetic  Sentences  0/ the  Restoration  \_iS-jg,  20-22,  2j\ 


ZECHARIAH—  WISDOM 


491 


Book  II 
Discourses 
ix-xi 
Discourse:  Thy  King  cometh 

Rhapsodic   Discourse:    The    False   Shepherds  and   the 
Flock  of  Slaughter 

Book  III 
Discourses 


xii-xiii.  6 
xiii,  7-9 


Discourse :  The  Fountain  in  the  House  of  David 

Discourse  :  Against  my  Shepherd 

Discourse :  Vision  of  Judgment  and  the  Golden  Age  (332) 


MALACHI 

A  Dialectic  Cycle  of  Six  Discourses  (346) 

[i.  2-5;    i.  6-ii.  9;    ii.  10-16;    ii.  17-iii.  6;    iii.  7-12;    iii.  13-iv.  6] 


WISDOM   OF  SOLOMON 
A  Suite  of  Five  Discourses  in  the  Form  of  Text  and  Comment 

Above,  Chapter  XIII :  compare  Appendix  IV,  and  pages  323-4,  255  note 


1.  i-u 

i.  i2-vi.  II 


x-xi.  5 
xi.  S-xix 


Text  [i.  i]  and  Discourse  I:    Singleness  of  Heart  (310) 

Text  [i.  12]  and  Discourse  II :  Immortality  and  the  Cov- 
enant with  Death  (31 1-5) 

Text  [vi.  12]  and  Discourse  III:  Solomon's  Winning  of 
Wisdom  (315-6) 

Text^  [ix.  18,  last  clause]  and  Discourse  IV  :  The  World 
saved  through  Wisdom  (317) 

Text^  [xi.  5]  and  Discourse  V:  Judgments  on  the 
Wicked  turning  to  Blessings  on  God's  People  (318- 
23  :  compare  Appendix  IV) 


1  In  these  two  Discourses  the  text  is  made  by  the  concluding  words  of  the  pre- 
ceding Discourse. 


492 


LITERARY  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE 


ECCLESIASTICUS 

OR 

THE   WISDOM   OF   JESUS  THE   SOX    OF   SIILACH 

A  Miscellany  of  Wisdom  in  Five  Books 

Above,  pages  289-92,  255  note,  323-4 

Preface  by  the  Author's  Grandson 

Book  I 


\.  1-20 
22—4 

25-7 

28-30 
ii.  1-6" 

7-18 
iii.  1-16 

17-28 

29-31 
iv.  i-io 

11-19 

20-8 
iv.  2g-v.  3 
V.  4-S 
V.  9-^-i.  I 
\-i.  2-4 

5-17 

iS-37 
\Ti.  1-3 

4-6 
vii.  J-/8 

19-36 
viiL  i-ix.  16 


Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  the  Fear  of  the  Lord 
Epigram :  Unjust  Wrath 
A  Maxim 
A  Maxim 
A  Maxim 

Sonnet :  True  and  False  Fear 
Essay :  Honour  to  Parents 
Essay:  Meekness 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Essay :  Consideration  for  High  and  Low 
Essay :  Wisdom's  Way  with  her  Children 
Essay:  True  and  False  Shame 
Disconnected  Sayings 
A  Maxim 

Proverb  Quster:  Govenmient  of  the  Tongue  (265) 
Epigram:  Self-Will 
Essay:  On  Friendship 
Essay :  On  Pursuit  of  Wisdom 
Epigram :  Sowing  Sin  and  Reaping 
A  Maxim 

Disconnected  Sayings 
Essay:  Household  Precepts 

Essay :    Adaptation   of   Behaviour   to  Various   Sorts   of 
Men 


ECCLESIASTICUS 


493 


ix.  17-X.  5 
X.  6-xi.  6 
xi.  7-10 
n-28 

xi.  29-xiii.  24 
xiii.  2^-xiv.  2 
xiv.  3-19 
xiv.  20-xv.  10 

11-20 
xvi.  1-23 
xvi.  24-xviii.  14 
xviii.  15-18 

19-27 
xviii.  28-g 
xviii.  30-xix.  3 
xix.  4-17 
xix.  20-xx.  13 
XX.  14-31 
xxi.  i-io 

11-26 
xxi.  27-xxii.  5 
xxii.  6-15 

xxii.  \(i-2(i 
xxii.  27-xxiii.  6 
xxiii.  7-15 
16-27 


Essay  :  Wisdom  and  Government 

Essay  :  Pride  and  True  Greatness 

Proverb  Cluster :  Meddlesomeness 

Essay :  Prosperity  and  Adversity  are  from  the  Lord 
(268) 

Essay  :  Choice  of  Company 

Discofinecled  Sayings 

Essay :  On  Niggardliness 

Essay :  The  Pursuer  of  Wisdom  and  his  Reward 

Essay :  On  Free  Will 

Essay  :  No  Safety  for  Sinners  in  Numbers 

Essay :  God's  Work  of  Creation  and  Restoration 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Graciousness 

Essay :  On  Taking  Heed  in  Time 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Three  Temperance  Maxims  [30-31;   32-1  («);  i  (^)-3] 

Essay  :  Against  Gossip  (268) 

Essay :   Wisdom  and  its  Counterfeits 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Proverb  Cluster  :  Sin  and  its  Judgment 

Proverb  Cluster :  Wise  Men  and  Fools 

Proverb  Cluster :  The  Hatefulness  of  Evil 

Proverb  Cluster :  Commerce  with  Fools  Intolerable  [in- 
cluding a  Sonnet:  11-12] 

Essay :  The  Steadfast  Friend  and  the  Uncertain 

Sonnet :  Watchfulness  of  Lips  and  Heart  (279) 

Essay  :  The  Discipline  of  the  Mouth 

Essay :  The  Horror  of  Adultery 


£ook  II 
xxiv-xxxiii.  /j" 


XXV.    1-2 

3-6 

7-1 1 

.     13-15 


Preface  to  Book  II,  into  which  is  interwoven  (3-22) 
a  Dramatic  Monologue :  Wisdom's  Praise  of  Her- 
self (289-90) 

Number  Sonnet :  What  Wisdom  loves  and  hates  (275) 

A  Maxim 

Number  Sonnet :  The  Love  of  the  Lord  (276) 

Epigram ;  The  Wrath  of  an  Enemy 


494 


LITERARY  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE 


XXV.  i6-xxvi.  1 8 

xxvi.  28 

xxvi.  29-xxvii.  2 

xxvii.  3-10 

II-15 

16-21 

22-4 
xxvii.  25-xxviii.  1 1 
xxviii.  12-26 
xxix.  1-20 

21-8 
XXX.  1-13 

14-25 

xxxi.  i-ii 

xxxi.  i2-xxxii.  13 

xxxii.  14- 

xx.\iii.  6 
xxxiii.  7-15 


Proverb  Cluster:  Women  Bad  and  Good  [xxv.  i6-xxvi.  4 

Essay;  5-6  Number  Sonnet;    7-18  Sonnet] 
Number  Sonnet :  The  Backslider 
A  Maxim 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Proverb  Cluster :  The  Discourse  of  Wise  and  Fools 
A  Maxim 
A  Maxim 

Essay  :  Retribution  and  Vengeance 
Essay :  On  the  Tongue  (266) 
Essay :  On  Lending  and  Suretyship 
Essay :  The  Blessing  of  a  House  of  One's  Own 
Essay :  On  the  Chastisement  of  Children 
Essay :   On  Health 
Essay :  On  Riches 
Essay:  On  Feasting 
Disconnected  Sayings 

Essay :  An  Analogy 


Book  III 


xxxiii.  i6-xxxix.  11 


xxxiii.  j6-i8 

19-23 

24-31 
xxxiv.  1-8 

9-12 
xxxiv.  13-17 
xxxiv.  18-xxxv 
xxxvi.  1-17 

18-20 

21-6 

xxxvii.  1-6 

7-26 
xxxvii.  27- 

xxxviii.  15 
xxxviii.  16-23 
xxxviii.  24- 

xxxix.  II 


Preface  to  Book  III  {2go) 

Essay  :  On  Giving  and  Bequeathing 

Essay :  On  Servants 

Essay :  On  Dreams 

A  Maxim 

Sonnet :  The  Fearers  of  the  Lord 

Essay :  On  Sacrifices,  Evil  and  Acceptable 

A  Prayer  for  Mercy  upon  Israel 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Essay :  On  Wives 

Essay :  On  False  Friends  " 

Essay:    On  Counsel  and  Counsellors  (269-70) 

Essay  :  On  Disease  and  Physicians 

Essay :  On  Mourning  for  the  Dead 

Essay :  The  Wisdom  of  Business   and   the  Wisdom  of 
Leisure 


E  CCLESIASTICUS 


495 


Book  IV 


xxxix.  i2-xlii.  14 


xxxix. 

12-35 

xl. 

I- 

10 

xli 

II- 

28 
I- 

-27 
-30 
4 

xli 

5- 
14 

'3 

-xlii.  8 

xlii 

•9 

-14 

Preface  into  which  is  interwoven  (16-31)  a   Rhetoric 

Encomium  of  God's  Works 
Essay  :  The  Burden  of  Life 
A  Pair  of  Sonnets:  A  Garden  of  Blessing 
A  Maxim 

Sonnet :  On  Death 
Essay :  The  Posterity  of  Sinners 
Essay :  On  Things  to  be  ashamed  of 
Essay :  Women  as  a  Source  of  Trouble 


Book   V 


Longer  Works 
xlii.  i_5-l.  24 


xlii.  l5-xliii 
xliv-1.  24 


Rhetoric  Encomium :  The  Works  of  the  Lord 
Rhetoric  -Encomium :  The  Praise  of  Famous  Men  (290) 


Epilogue  to  the  Whole :   Number  Sonnet  of  the  Hated  Nations  (1.  25-6) — 

Colophon  with  Beatitude  (27-9) 
Author's  Preface  to  the  Whole  (li) 


496  LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


ST.  MATTHEW,  ST.  MARK,  ST.  LUKE,  ST.  JOHN 

Each  of  these  constitutes  a  single  Gospel,  which  must  be  understood  as 
a  specific  literary  form  (250) 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 
A  continuation  of  one  of  the  Gospels,  and  of  the  same  literary  form  (251) 

EPISTLE  TO  THE  "ROMANS 
An  Epistolary  Treatise  (441) 

I,  n  CORINTHIANS 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (440) 

GALATIANS 
An  Epistle  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (440) 

EPHESIANS- 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (442) 

PHILIPPIANS 
An  Epistle  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (441) 

COLOSSIANS 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (442) 

I,  II  THESSALONIANS 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (441) 


TIMO  THY—  PE  TER 


497 


I,  II  TIMOTHY 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (441) 

TITUS,   PHILEMON 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (441) 

HEBREWS 
An  Epistolary  Treatise  (442) 


«.  / 

i.  2-4 

5-8 
9-1 1 

12-27 

ii.  1-13 

14-26 
iii.  1-12 

13-1S 
iv.  i-io 

11-12 
iv.  13-V.  18 

19-20 


JAMES 

A  Wisdom  Epistle  (292) 

Superscription  to  the  Epistle 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

Essay :  On  the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  us 

(270-2) 
Essay :  On  Respect  of  Persons 
Essay :  Faith  and  Works 

Essay :  On  the  Responsibility  of  Speech  (267) 
Essay  :  The  Earthly  Wisdom  and  the  Wisdom  from  above 
Discourse  :  On  Worldly  Pleasures 
A  Maxim  (264) 

Discourse :  The  Judgment  to  come 
A  Maxim 


I,  II  PETER 
Epistolary  Manifestos  (442) 


498  UTERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 

I  JOHN 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (442) 

II,  III  JOHN 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (441) 

JUDE 

An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (443) 

THE  REVELATION 
A  Vision  Cycle  (431-6) 


APPENDIX    II 

TABLES  OF  LITERARY  FORMS 

This  second  Appendix  is  intended  for  the  technical  student  of  Literary 
Morphology.  It  arranges  in  Tables  all  the  literary  forms  found  in  Scripture, 
with  the  examples  of  them,  so  that  each  form  can  be  studied  by  itself.  In  the 
case  of  very  common  forms,  such  as  the  simple  Discourse,  it  has  not  been 
thought  necessary  to  give  the  examples.  The  reference  figures  are  to  preced- 
ing pages  of  this  book. 


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APPENDIX    III 

ON  THE  STRUCTURAL  PRINTING   OF  SCRIPTURE 

In  Biblical,  as  in  other  versification,  the  structure  which  appeals  to  the  ear 
and  the  mind  can  also  be  conveyed  to  the  eye  by  proper  modes  of  printing. 
The  devices  of  spacing  stanzas  and  indenting  lines,  which  in  English  verse  are 
used  to  mark  out  correspondences  of  rhyme  or  metre,  can  be  employed  to 
indicate  analogous  relations  of  parallel  clauses. 

The  subject  is  best  treated  by  examples.  The  system  of  structural  printing 
followed  for  the  most  part  in  the  present  work  I  will  illustrate  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  a  famous  passage  from  Ecclesiastes. 

Remember  also  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth : 
Or  ever  the  evil  days  come, 
And  the  years  draw  nigh 

When  thou  shall  say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them; 

Or  ever  the  sun, 

And  the  light, 

And  the  moon, 

And  the  stars, 
Be  darkened, 
And  the  clouds  return  after  the  rain : 

In  the  day  when  the  keepers  of  the  house  shall  tremble, 
And  the  strong  men  shall  bow  themselves. 
And  the  grinders  cease  because  they  are  few. 
And  those  that  look  out  of  the  windows  be  darkened, 
And  the  doors  shall  be  shut  in  the  street; 
When  the  sound  of  the  grinding  is  low, 
And  one  shall  rise  up  at  the  voice  of  a  bird. 
And  all  the  daughters  of  music  shall  be  brought  low; 
Yea,  they  shall  be  afraid  of  that  which  is  high, 
512 


THE   STRUCTURAL  PRINTING    OF  SCRIPTURE         513 

And  terrors  shall  be  in  the  way; 
And  the  almond-tree  shall  blossom, 
And  the  grasshopper  shall  be  a  burden, 
And  the  caper-berry  shall  fail : 

Because  man  goeth  to  his  long  home, 
And  the  mourners  go  about  the  streets: 

Or  ever  the  silver  cord  be  loosed, 

Or  the  golden  bowl  be  broken, 

Or  the  pitcher  be  broken  at  the  fountain, 

Or  the  wheel  broken  at  the  cistern; 

And  the  dust  return  to  the  earth 

As  it  was, 
And  the  spirit  return  unto  God 

Who  gave  it. 

The  system  is  illustrated  in  all  its  essential  features  by  this  passage.  Two 
of  the  principles  underlying  it  are  obvious :  that  similar  clauses  are  similarly 
indented,  and  that  stanzas  are  separated  by  spaces.  It  involves,  however, 
two  other  points  that  need  more  explanation. 

The  first  of  these  points  is  raised  by  the  opening  stanza.  When  this 
stanza,  or  rather,  the  portion  of  it  which  follows  the  introductory  first  line,  is 
examined,  it  is  seen  to  be  essentially  a  couplet,  of  which  one  member  is 

Or  ever  the  evil  days  come, 

and  the  other  member  is 

And  the  years  draw  nigh  when  thou  shalt  say,  I  have  no 
pleasure  in  them. 

Considered  from  every  point  of  view  except  one,  these  clauses  are  exactly 
parallel  with  one  another.  But  when  viewed  in  reference  to  the  mass  of  the 
two  they  are  found  strangely  unequal :  the  epithet  of  a  single  word  '  evil '  in 
the  one  clause  has  to  balance  it  in  the  other  the  long  collocation  of  words, 
'when  thou  shalt  say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them.'  Yet  this  collocation  of 
words  does  not  present  itself  to  our  ears  as  a  clumsy  enlargement  of  the 
second  clause,  but,  on  the  contrary,  as  a  valuable  addition  to  the  rhetoric 
richness  of  the  whole  passage.  I  would  meet  such  a  case  by  separating  the 
collocation  of  words  so  as  to  make  it  an  element  in  the  general  structure,  and 


514  APPENDIX    III 

at  the  same  time  indenting  it  so  as  to  indicate  its  subordination  to  the  previoos 
line,  in  the  sense  of  which  it  is  a  single  detaiL 

Or  ever  the  e\-il  da}-s  come 
And  the  years  draw  nigh 

\Mien  thou  shalt  say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  device  of  indenting  is  thus  used  not  only  to  bring 
together  lines  which  are  co-ordinate  with  one  another,  but  also  (occasionally) 
to  distinguish  a  portion  of  the  whole  rhetoric  mass  which  is  subordinate  to 
another  portion.  I  believe  that  no  system  of  parallel  printing  will  be  found 
practicable  which  does  not  provide  for  subordinate  as  well  as  co-ordinate 
indenting. 

Another  point  illustrated  by  the  extract  from  EccUsiasUs  is  the  way  in 
which  parallel  printing,  besides  affecting  lines  closely  contiguous,  can  also 
convey  to  the  eye  correspondences  between  clauses  \videly  sundered  from  one 
another.  The  passage  cited  is  a  poetic  tour-de-force  of  extreme  boldness; 
the  infirmities  of  old  age,  which  usually  good  taste  would  veil,  are  here 
enumerated  in  all  their  minuteness.  Yet  the  effect  is  one  of  beauty,  because 
the  symptoms  of  decay  are  not  expressed  directly,  but  suggested  under  shadows 
of  oriental  symbolism,  —  by  sjinbols  sometimes  unintelligible  to  the  Western 
reader,  whereas  others  of  them  have  from  this  passage  been  imported  into 
familiar  speech.  At  just  three  points  in  the  whole  poem  the  SNinbolism  is 
dropped,  and  direct  speech  has  a  moment's  prominence  :  in  the  opening  line, 
bidding  remember  God  in  youth;  once  further  on,  where  a  string  of  symbols 
gives  place  to  the  simple  words  — 

Because  man  goeth  to  his  long  home 
And  the  mourners  go  about  the  streets; 

and  again  at  the  conclusion  which  speaks  of  the  dust  returning  to  the  earth 
and  the  spirit  to  God.  As  the  passage  is  printed  above  it  will  be  seen  that 
these  three  passages  stand  out  from  all  the  rest  by  their  common  indenting  on 
the  extreme  left 

The  system  of  structural  printing  thus  illustrated  aims  at  reflecting  the 
Higher  Parallelism.  I  have  drawn  attention  in  the  body  of  this  work  (page 
73)  to  the  distinction  between  the  Lower  and  the  Higher  Parallelism :  between 
the  disposition  of  a  passage  in  simple  figures,  like  couplets  and  quatrains,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  suppression  of  these  figures  in  order  to  let  higher 
correspondences  appear,  such  as  belong  to  the  thought  of  the  passage  as  a 
whole.  By  way  of  illustration  I  gave  two  arrangements  of  a  passage  from 
the  Book  of  fob  (see  pages  74-6).     The  arrangement  illustrating  the  Higher 


THE   STRUCTURAL   PRINTING    OF  SCRIPTURE         515 

Parallelism  was  able  to  keep  distinct  to  the  eye  the  two  strains  of  thought 
which  in  that  passage  are  continually  crossing  one  another.  The  same  effect 
may  be  secured  in  the  close  of  the  sixty-fifth  psalm :  as  here  arranged  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  left-hand  lines  express  the  general  visitation  of  the  God  of 
nature,  and  the  resulting  bountiful  harvest,  while  the  right-hand  lines  put  the 
special  gift  of  rain  with  the  richness  of  pasturage  the  rain  produces. 

Thou  visitest  the  earth,  and  waterest  it: 

Thou  greatly  enrichest  it, 

The  river  of  God  is  full  of  water : 
Thou  providest  them  corn,  when  thou  hast  so  prepared  the  earth; 
Thou  waterest  her  furrows  abundantly. 
Thou  settlest  the  ridges  thereof, 
Thou  makest  it  soft  with  showers. 
Thou  blessest  the  springing  thereof, 
Thou  crownest  the  year  with  thy  goodness : 

And  thy  paths  drop  fatness, 

They  drop  upon  the  pastures  of  the  wilderness, 

And  the  hills  are  girded  with  joy : 

The  pastures  are  clothed  with  flocks, 
The  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn : 
They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing. 

Many  similar  effects  of  Higher  Parallelism  can  be  conveyed  by  structural 
printing.  In  the  arrangement  of  Psalm  Ixxvii  on  page  175  it  will  be  clear 
how  a  block  of  similar  lines  makes  an  enumeration  of  troubled  emotions, 
then  an  indentation  to  the  right  voices  the  prayer  of  trouble;  again  left-hand 
lines  express  the  struggle  out  of  trouble  to  the  confidence  born  of  memories, 
and  a  change  to  right-hand  lines  introduces  the  comforting  memories :  the 
whole  struggle,  in  the  proportion  of  its  parts,  is  reflected  to  the  eye.  The 
similar  psalm  cited  on  pages  176-7  separates  the  alternating  trouble  and  confi- 
dence notwithstanding  the  irregularity  of  the  alternations.  In  the  psalms  of 
double  dramatic  change  (see  pages  180-3)  the  retrogression  to  the  time  of 
affliction  is  marked  off  by  indentation,  and  this  arrangement  conveys  at  once 
to  the  eye  how  the  close  of  the  psalm  is  a  return  to  the  mood  of  the 
opening.  On  page  206  is  given  the  happy  dream  of  the  bride  (in  Canticles)  : 
a  glance  shows  how  the  lines  indented  to  the  right  make  an  approach  to  a 
refrain.  In  the  passage  of  the  Reciting  Chorus  on  the  following  page  the 
left-hand  lines  exclaim  at  a  sight,  the  right-hand  lines  describe  it:  the  whole 
has  the  further  effect  of  introversion.  For  the  poems  called  in  this  work 
Sonnets,  some  structural  printing  is  essential  to  bring  out  the  correspondence 


516  APPENDIX    III 

of  their  parts:  this  has  been  fully  explained  and  illustrated  on  pages  273-7. 
I  will  add  one  more  example,  on  a  larger  scale,  of  the  kind  of  printing  I 
advocate :  it  is  the  section  of  Job  which  gives  the  hero's  long-delayed  vindi- 
cation of  his  innocence. 

I  made  a  covenant  with  mine  eyes; 
How  then  should  I  look  upon  a  maid? 

For  what  portion  should  I  have  of  God  from  above? 

And  what  heritage  of  the  Almighty  from  on  high  ? 

Is  it  not  calamity  to  the  unrighteous. 

And  disaster  to  the  workers  of  iniquity  ? 

Doth  not  he  see  my  ways, 

And  number  all  my  steps  ? 

If  I  have  walked  with  vanity 

And  my  foot  hath  hasted  to  deceit ; 

(Let  me  be  weighed  in  an  even  balance, 
That  God  may  know  mine  integrity  ;) 
If  my  step  hath  turned  out  of  the  way, 
And  mine  heart  walked  after  mine  eyes. 
And  if  any  spot  hath  cleaved  to  mine  hands : 
Then  let  me  sow,  and  let  another  eat; 
Yea,  let  the  produce  of  my  field  be  rooted  out. 

If  mine  heart  have  been  enticed  unto  a  woman. 
And  I  have  laid  wait  at  my  neighbour's  door : 
Then  let  my  wife  grind  unto  another. 
And  let  others  bow  down  upon  her. 

For  that  were  an  heinous  crime; 

Yea,  it  were  an  iniquity  to  be  punished  by  the  judges : 
For  it  is  a  fire  that  consumeth  unto  Destruction, 
And  would  root  out  all  mine  increase. 

If  I  did  despise  the  cause  of  my  manservant  or  of  my  maidservant, 
When  they  contended  with  me. 

What  then  shall  I  do  when  God  riseth  up? 

And  when  he  visiteth,  what  shall  I  answer  him? 

Did  not  he  that  made  me  in  the  womb  make  him? 

And  did  not  one  fashion  us  in  the  womb? 
If  I  have  withheld  the  poor  from  their  desire 
Or  have  caused  the  eyes  of  the  widow  to  fail; 


THE   STRUCTURAL   PRINTING    OF  SCRIPTURE        517 

Or  have  eaten  my  morsel  alone, 

And  the  fatherless  hath  not  eaten  thereof; 

(Nay,  from  my  youth  he  grew  up  with  me  as  with  a  father, 
And  I  have  been  her  guide  from  my  mother's  womb;) 

If  I  have  seen  any  perish  for  want  of  clothing, 

Or  that  the  needy  had  no  covering; 

If  his  loins  have  not  blessed  me, 

And  if  he  were  not  warmed  with  the  fleece  of  my  sheep; 

If  I  have  lifted  up  my  hand  against  the  fatherless, 

Because  I  saw  my  help  in  the  gate : 
Then  let  my  shoulder  fall  from  the  shoulder  blade, 
Ancl  mine  arm  be  broken  from  the  bone. 

For  calamity  from  God  was  a  terror  to  me, 

And  by  reason  of  his  excellency  I  could  do  nothing. 

If  I  have  made  gold  my  hope. 

And  have  said  to  the  fine  gold.  Thou  art  my  confidence; 

If  I  rejoiced  because  my  wealth  was  great. 

And  because  mine  hand  had  gotten  much; 

If  I  beheld  the  sun  when  it  shined. 

Or  the  moon  walking  in  brightness; 

And  my  heart  hath  been  secretly  enticed, 

.And  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand: 

This  also  were  an  iniquity  to  be  punished  by  the  judges : 

For  I  should  have  lied  to  God  that  is  above. 

If  I  rejoiced  at  the  destruction  of  him  that  hated  me, 
Or  lifted  up  myself  when  evil  found  him  ; 

(Yea,  I  suffered  not  my  mouth  to  sin 

By  asking  his  life  with  a  curse;) 

If  the  men  of  my  tent  said  not. 

Who  can  find  one  that  hath  not  been  satisfied  with  his  flesh? 

The  stranger  did  not  lodge  in  the  street; 

But  I  opened  my  doors  to  the  traveller; 

If  after  the  manner  of  men  I  covered  my  transgressions, 

By  hiding  mine  iniquity  in  my  bosom; 

Because  I  feared  the  great  multitude, 

And  the  contempt  of  families  terrified  me. 

So  that  I  kept  silence,  and  went  not  out  of  the  door  — 


518  APPEXDIX    III 

Oh  that  I  had  one  to  hear  me ! 

(Lo,  here  is  my  signature,  let  the  Almighty  answer  me;) 

And  that  I  had  the  indictment  which  mine  adversary  hath  -.vritten ! 

Surely  I  would  carry  it  upon  my  shoulder; 

I  would  bind  it  unto  me  as  a  crown. 

I  would  declare  unto  him  the  number  of  my  steps; 

As  a  prince  would  I  present  it  to  him. 

If  my  land  cry  out  against  me, 

And  the  furro\vs  thereof  weep  together  ; 

If  I  have  eaten  the  fruits  thereof  without  money. 

Or  have  caused  the  owners  thereof  to  lose  their  life : 
Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat. 
And  cockle  instead  of  barley  I 

It  is  abundantly  clear  that  the  whole  of  this  elaborate  deliverance  is  con- 
structed on  three  notes,  and  the  resultant  three  strains  stand  distinct  to  the 
eye.  It  is  as  if  Job  were  adapting  rhetorically  a  prescribed  formulary  of 
\indication  to  a  great  variety  of  particulars.  In  Psalm  vii.  3  a  similarly 
constructed  passage  is  also  a  formulary  of  self-Wndication. 

O  Lord  my  God,  if  I  have  done  this; 

If  there  be  iniquity  in  my  hands; 

If  I  have  rewarded  evil  unto  him  that  was  at  peace  with  me; 

(Yea,  I  have  delivered  him  that  without  cause  was  mine  adversary :) 
Let  the  enemy  pursue  my  soul,  and  overtake  it; 
Yea,  let  him  tread  my  life  down  to  the  earth. 
And  lay  my  glory  in  the  dust ! 

It  is,  however,  the  Lower  Parallelism  of  figures  that  has  obtained  the 
widest  acceptance  at  the  present  day.  Besides  the  use  of  it  in  the  com- 
mentaries of  scholars,  it  has  been  followed  in  a  few  popular  works,  an  example 
of  which  is  the  Golden  Treasurj-  Psalter.  This  follows  a  condensed  notation, 
resting  upon  the  use  of  the  '  hanging  indent.'  The  opening  of  Psalm  hii,  in 
full  rh)-thmic  structure,  would  stand  as  follows : 

Be  merciful  unto  me,  O  God,  be  merciful  unto  me, 
For  my  soul  fleeth  unto  thee  for  refuge. 
Yea,  under  the  shadow  of  thy  wings  shall  be  my  refuge, 

Until  this  peril  be  overpast ! 

I  will  call  unto  the  most  high  God, 
Even  to  God  who  doeth  good  unto  me. 


THE   STRUCTURAL   PRINTING    OF  SCRIPTURE         519 

That  he  send  from  heaven  and  save  me, 

And  put  to  shame  him  that  would  eat  me  up, 
Yea,  that  God  send  forth  his  mercy  and  truth. 

My  soul  is  among  lions,  I  lie  even  among  ravening  men. 
With  the  children  of  men,  whose  teeth  are  spears  and  arrows. 
And  their  tongue  a  sharp  sword. 

To  make,  in  this  way,  separate  stanzas  of  these  triplets,  couplet  and  quatrain 
loses  space,  and  spreads  the  whole  out  further  than  may  be  desirable.  The 
more  compact  structural  scheme,  instead  of  spacing,  retains  the  *  hanging 
indent '  (to  the  extreme  left)  for  the  first  line  of  each  figure :  and  the  other 
lines  of  the  figure  are  made  subordinate. 

Be  merciful  unto  me,  O  God,  be  merciful  unto  me, 

For  my  soul  fleeth  unto  thee  for  refuge. 

Yea,  under  the  shadow  of  thy  wings  shall  be  my  refuge, 
until  this  peril  be  overpast ! 
I  will  call  unto  the  most  high  God, 

even  to  God  who  doeth  good  unto  me, 
That  he  send  from  heaven  and  save  me, 

and  put  to  shame  him  that  would  eat  me  up. 
Yea,  that  God  send  forth  his  mercy  and  truth  ! 
My  soul  is  among  lions.     I  lie  even  among  ravening  men. 

With  the  children  of  men,  whose  teeth  are  spears  and  arrows, 

and  their  tongue  a  sharp  sword. 

I  doubt  the  advantages  of  this  condensed  structure,  except  where  the  figures 
are  very  simple  and  uniform.     I  have  used  it  on  pages  47  and  54. 

There  is,  however,  a  mode  of  printing  Scriptural  verse  that  reflects  no 
parallelism  at  all,  whether  higher  or  lower,  but  simply  distinguishes  the  lines 
of  verse,  all  lines  being  uniformly  indented.  This  is  the  mode  followed  in 
the  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible.  Standing  by  itself,  this  Verse  Structure 
seems  a  very  insufficient  representation  of  the  rhythmic  poetry  of  the  Bible. 
But  it  may  be  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  Higher  Parallelism;  where  there  are 
no  special  correspondences  to  be  indicated,  it  is  better  to  fall  back  upon  this 
neutral  verse  structure  than  upon  the. lower  parallelism  that  rests  upon  figures 
and  not  sense. 

Yet  another  structural  notation,  which  may  be  called  Centric  Printing,  is 
followed  (for  example)  by  Dr.  Samuel  Cox  in  his  admirable  translation  of  Job. 
This  device  is  attributed  to  the  poet  Southey,  and  he  has  used  it  in  the  elabo- 


520  APPENDIX    III 

rate  veise  svstem  of  his  KeJuima  and  TTudaba.  Its  law  is  smple,  —  that  the 
centre  of  each  line  corresponds  with  the  centre  of  the  page. 

Thy  sons  and  thy  daughters 

were  eating  and  drinking  wine  in  their  eldest  brother's  honse; 

and,  behold, 

there  came  a  great  wind  from  the  wilderness, 

and  smote  the  four  comers  of  the  house, 

and  it  fell  upon  the  young  men, 

and  they  are  dead; 

and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee. 

Though  not  without  beauty  to  the  eye,  this  mode  of  printing  seems  inadequate 
to  the  requirements  of  Biblical  versification,  as  merely  separating  clauses,  and 
not  co-ordinating  them.  But  it  may  have  a  real  place  in  the  expresaon  <A 
speech  which  is  on  the  borderland  between  prose  and  verse,  and  I  hare  nsed 
it  in  such  passages  (^^.  page  4). 

As  to  the  choice  between  these  systems  of  stmctural  printing,  I  would  lay 
it  down  as  a  principle  of  rhythmic  analysis  that  there  is  in  these  questions  no 
right  and  wrong,  but  only  better  and  worse.  A  given  passage  may  be  expressed 
in  many  different  arrangements,  and  that  will  be  the  best  which  draws  out  of 
it  the  greatest  svTnmetry.  And  even  the  sense  of  symmetry  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  conception  of  a  particular  passage  or  the  purpose  of  a  particalar 
citation. 


APPENDIX    IV 

OlSr  THE  USE  OF  THE  DIGRESSION  IN  THE  '  BOOK 
OF  WISDOM' 


I  have  remarked  in  Chapter  XIII  upon  a  peculiar  feature  of  literary  style 
that  characterises  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon.  This  is  the  use  in  that  book  of 
the  Digression,  not  as  an  accident  or  a  makeshift,  hut  as  an  end  in  itself. 
The  exact  usage  may  be  described  by  the  term  Digressive  Subordination :  a 
succession  of  digressions,  and  digressions  from  those  digressions,  each  reced- 
ing further  from  the  original  line  of  thought.  It  is  difficult  to  find  an  illustra- 
tive parallel  without  going  to  literature  of  a  very  different  order;  but  perhaps 
one  is  to  be  found  in  a  feature  of  oriental  fiction  which  French  criticism  has 
entitled  hisloires  h  tiroir.  I  refer  to  such  fiction  as  is  known  to  the  West  by 
the  Arabian  Nights  or  the  Fables  of  Bidpai :  the  original  story  introduces  a 
personage  who  tells  a  number  of  stories,  in  one  of  which  a  company  entertain 
one  another  with  stories;  and  the  process  is  continued,  story  enclosed  within 
story,  like  a  set  of  Chinese  boxes.  Not  dissimilar  to  such  story  suljordination 
is  the  digressive  subordination  of  the  work  we  are  considering;  as  perhaps  the 
following  scheme  will  help  to  make  clear. 

For  evil  thoughts  and  works  separate  from  God 

For  IVisdom  takes  fright  at  even  a  wicked  word 

For  that  which  fills  all  things  must  hear  every  murmur 

Each  line  represents  a  whole  paragraph  of  the  original.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  third  line  is  a  comment  upon  the  second,  and  the  second  upon  the  first; 
or,  if  we  read  the  other  way,  the  second  line  is  a  digression  from  the  first,  and 
the  third,  being  a  digression  from  the  second,  is  doubly  a  digression  from 
the  first. 

The  argument  represented  by  the  above  scheme  I  will  quote  in  full  (i.  2-1 1). 
Seek  the  Lord  (urges  the  author)  with  singleness  of  heart: 

521 


522  APPENDIX  IV 

BecoMse  ht  is  fnutd  »f  dum  that  tewift  kim  ntl,  amd  is  mianifesUd  t»  dum  Aat 
de  net  distrust  kimi.  For  crooked  Aet^hts  separaii  from  God,  and  the  Supremu 
Pnotr,  Taken  it  is  trmigit  to  tlu  proof,  puttHh  to  confusion  ike  foolish  ; 

Because  spisdcm  Tcill  n^  enter  into  a  soul  that  deziseA  nil,  nor  datdl  in  a 
body  that  is  hdd  in  pledgee  by  sin.  Pbr  a  holy  spirit  of  discipline  will  Jiee 
deceit,  and  wiU  start  oiaoay  from  Aomghts  Aat  are  wtAout  understanding, 
and  will  be  put  to  confusiam  Taken  unri^Ueausness  hoA  came  in.  For 
wisdmn  is  a  spirit  Aat  laveA  man,  and  she  will  not  kald  a  blasphemer 
guiltless  for  his  lips ;  because  Gad  beareA^  Toitness  of  his  reins,  and  is  a 
true  ozerseer  of  his  heart,  and  a  hearer  of  his  tongue  : 

Because  the  spirit  of  Ae  Lord  kaA  fiOed  the  Toorld,  and  Aat  wUck 
koldeA  aUtkings  together  kaA  knowledge  of  every  voice:  tkerefore  no 
man  tkat  uttereA  unri^Ueaus  tkings  skaE  be  unseen,  neiAer  skaU 
Justice,  wken  it  conmeteA,  pass  kim  by.  For  in  Ae  midst  of  kis 
counsels  tke  ungodfy  skaJl  be  searcked  out;  and  tke  sound  of  kis 
words  shall  come  unto  the  Lord  to  bring  to  conviction  kis  laralea 
deeds  :  because  tkere  is  an  ear  of  jealousy  tkat  listeneA  to  aU  tkings, 
and  Ae  noise  of  murmuring!  is  nU  hid  Beware  then  of  unprofitable 
niurmuring,  and  refrain  your  tongue  from  baekUtit^;  brcaute  no 
secret  utterance  shall  go  on  its  Toay  void,  and  a  mouA  Aat  bdieA 
destroyeA  a  soul. 

In  seeking  an  explanation  of  this  marked  featnre  of  literary  style,  one 
remark  mav  be  ventured.  The  Iflsdom  of  Soloaion,  however  Greek  it  may 
be  in  origin  and  modes  of  thought,  is  neverthdess  a  ocmtrilMtioii  to  Hebrew 
literature,  and  to  the  long  hteraiy  period  diat  intervenes  between  the  Old 
and  New  TestamenL  Bat  the  main  rd^iioos  literatme  of  this  period  was  die 
oral  literature  of  conmentarr,  which,  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  maintained  itsdf 
and  gathered  strength,  until,  in  the  Christian  era,  it  took  written  shape  in  the 
Talmud.  It  would  be  strange  if  that  which  made  so  large  a  part  of  Jewish 
rdigioos  life  had  left  no  trace  in  the  written  literature  of  the  times;  and  we 
have  seen  that  the  whole  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  £dk  into  the  shape  of 
tei^ts  and  comments.  But  there  is  a  dose  connecdon  between  the  comment 
and  the  digression:  a  d^resaon  may  be  looked  npon  as  a  mmmcnt  apon 
that  point  of  the  discoorse  from  which  it  d^iesses.  Hence  tfie  proodnenoe 
of  the  d^ression  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  may  be  connected  with  die  infln- 
ence  of  the  oral  literature  of  commentary  opon  written  fiteratme. 

This  influence  is  foand  to  extend  to  die  literature  of  the  New  Testament. 
In  the  style  of  St.  Paul  the  digression  is  almost  as  prominent  as  in  the  book 
which  is  the  subject  of  thb  Appen<^K.     It  is  also  ^ledally  observable  in  the 


THE   DIGRESSIONS  IN   THE   'BOOK   OF    WISDOM'     523 

Gospel  of  St.  John:  the  apparent  repetitions  and  involutions  of  its  style  lose 
their  difficulty  when  text  and  comment  are  separated. 

In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and  the 
Word  was  God. 

[  The  same  was  in  the  beginning  with  God.  All  things  were  made  by  him  ; 
and  without  him  was  not  anything  made.  That  which  hath  been  made 
was  life  in  him  ;  and  the  life  was  the  light  of  men.  And  the  light  shineth 
in  the  darkness  ;  and  the  darkness  overcame  it  not.  There  came  a  man 
sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John.  The  same  came  for  witness,  that 
he  might  bear  zvitness  of  the  light,  that  all  might  believe  through  him.  He 
was  not  the  light,  but  came  that  he  might  bear  zvitness  of  the  light.  The 
true  light,  -which  lighteth  every  man,  xvas  coming  into  the  world.  He  was 
in  the  world,  and  the  world  zvas  made  by  him,  and  the  ivorld  knew  him 
not.  He  came  unto  his  own,  and  they  that  were  his  oiun  received  him 
not.  But  as  many  as  received  him,  to  them  gave  he  the  right  to  become 
children  of  God,  even  to  them  that  believe  on  his  name  :  which  were  born, 
not  of  blood,  nor  of  the  will  of  the  flesh,  nor  of  the  will  of  man,  but  of  God.] 

And  the  7vord  became  fesh,  and  dtuelt  among  us,  full  of  grace  and  truth. 
\_And  we  beheld  his  glory,  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten  from  the  Father. 
"John  beareth  witness  of  him,  and  crieth,  etc.] 

In  the  same  way  care  is  often  needed  in  this  Gospel  to  distinguish  exactly 
where  a  discourse  of  Jesus  ends,  and  the  Evangelist's  comment  begins.  Thus 
the  Discourse  to  Nicodemus  should  probably  end  with  verse  15,  and  verses 
16-21  are  the  words  of  St.  John. 

To  return  to  the  Book  of  Wisdom.  That  such  digressive  subordination  is 
not  the  result  of  confused  or  lax  thought,  but  is  an  end  in  itself,  is  strongly 
suggested  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  most  elaborate  examples,  the  process  is 
carried  on  to  the  point  of  reversing  itself,  and  the  dropped  threads  are  picked 
up  one  by  one,  till  the  argument  has  returned  to  the  original  line  of  thought 
by  stages  as  regular  as  those  by  which  it  had  departed  from  it.  Another 
scheme  may  illustrate  this. 

With  the  loathsome  plague  of  vermin  compare  — 

But  note  nemesis:  vermin  on  foolish  vermin-worshippers  — 

Not  but  what  all  idolatry  is  folly,  as  corrupting  God's  gifts  — 

For  idolatry  in  its  origin  is  a  corruption  — 
All  idolatry  is  folly,  hut  there  are  degrees  of  folly  — 
Vermin-worship  was  the  vilest  and  deserved  such  doom  — 
With  that  loathsomeness  compare  the  tasty  quails  of  the  Israelites. 


524  APPENDIX    IV 

The  reader  must  understand  that  each  of  these  lines  has  to  do  duty  for  what 
in  the  original  is  a  train  of  argument  running  sometimes  to  several  pages. 
It  will  be  seen  that  each  of  the  successive  digressions  is  further  removed  from 
the  original  thought,  until  the  discussion  on  the  origin  of  idolatry  represented 
by  the  fourth  line  stands  three  degrees  distant  from  the  argument  of  the 
opening  line;  then  the  argument  returns  on  its  steps,  each  of  the  previous 
digressions  is  resumed  and  concluded,  and  the  first  line  of  thought  is  recovered. 
It  may  be  added  that,  once  the  key  to  the  arrangement  is  caught,  the  points 
of  junction  in  the  text  will  be  seen  to  be  clearly  marked;  and  the  whole 
complex  of  thought  gives  the  impression  of  symmetry  and  finish. 

The  portion  of  the  text  represented  by  this  second  scheme  (from  xi.  15  to 
xvi.  4)  is  too  long  to  quote  in  full,  but  I  give  a  condensation,  indented  so  as 
to  bring  out  the  digressive  subordination.  References  are  inserted  indicating 
the  exact  point  at  which  each  digression  leads  off. 

Appetite  (it  is  argued,  though  the  argument  is  not  apparent  until  after  the 
close  of  the  digressions  in  xvi.  4)  is  one  of  the  things  in  reference  to  xuhich  the 
enemy  was  punished,  and  the  righteous  nation  benefited.  The  Egyptians  suf- 
fered a  plague  of  VERMIN. 

Note:  Vermin  on  vermin-worshippers  (xi.  16)  :  by  what  things  a  man 
sinneth.,  by  these  he  is  punished.  The  choice  of  that  punishment  in  kind 
over  all  other  viodes  of  punishment  evidences  the  mercy  of  the  omnipotent 
lover  of  lives  {such  a  reminder  to  the  sinner  being  part  of  his  rvay  of  con- 
victing little  by  little,  as  when  hornets  were  sent  upon  the  Canaanites  before 
the  final  destroyers  came') .  God  '5  sovereignty  over  all  makes  him  forbear- 
ino  to  all ;  teaching  his  people  to  be  lovers  of  men,  and  giving  them  hope  in 
the  time  of  their  own  chastisement.  —  The  Egyptians  were  justly  chastised 
with  their  own  abominations,  because  they  were  so  far  gone  in  the  TOLL  Y 
OF  IDOLATRY. 

For  all  idolatry  is  folly  (xiii.  i)  :  to  see  God^s  works,  and  not  recog- 
nise the  Creator.  Least  blameable  are  those  who  mistake  the  heavenly 
bodies  or  beautiful  works  of  nature  for  God  {though,  knowing  so 
much,  these  might  have  known  more).  But  miserable  indeed  are 
those  who  rest  their  hopes  in  dead  things :  gold,  silver,  useless  stone, 
or  even  refuse  of  a  tree  carved  in  an  idle  hour  into  a  god ;  the  work- 
man prayeth  all  help  from  this  which  is  in  all  things  helpless  :  accursed 
idolater  that  turns  xohat  God  has  created  into  CORRUPTION. 

For  idolatry  is  a  corruption  of  life  (xiv.  12),  and  not  one  of  the 
things  which  have  been  from  the  beginning.      Origin  of  idola- 


THE  DIGRESSIONS  IN   THE  'BOOK   OF   WISDOM'     525 

try :  perhaps  an  iviage  of  a  lost  child,  honoured  with  rites, 
that  afterwards  grow  into  a  law.  Or,  an  image  of  a  king, 
made  for  flattery  in  his  absence,  forced  by  the  art  of  the  ar- 
tificer into  a  beauty  that  in  time  draws  worship :  thus  stocks 
and  stones  become  invested  with  the  incommunicable  A^ame. 
Moral  corruption  follows  :  the  conflict  within  the  idolaters'  hearts 
caused  by  their  loss  of  the  knotvledge  of  God  they  consider  peace, 
and  organise  for  it  rites  and  ceremonies,  which  admit  foul  sin  ; 
besides  that  the  empty  idols  are  no  restraint  upon  perjury. 

But  we  have  knotvledge  of  the  true  God  (xv.  i),  and  are  not  led  into 
folly  by  the  devices  of  men's  art  to  worship  dead  images.  Such  a  fool 
is  the  potter,  who  out  of  clay  makes  vessels  for  clean  uses  and  the  con- 
trary (Jie  decides  whicli),  and  out  of  this  same  clay  mouldetk  a  god — 
though  he  was  himself  earth  but  lately,  and  into  earth  will  shortly 
return :  he  is  full  of  anxiety,  tiot  about  the  shortness  of  his  term,  but 
in  matching  himself  against  the  goldsmith's  work,  as  if  life  were  a 
plaything,  or  a  fair  for  making  gain  :  he  beyond  other  idolaters  must 
knoto  that  he  sinneth. 

The  vermin-worshippers  of  Egypt  were  further  gone  than  all  in  the  folly 
of  idolatry  (xv.  14)  :  they  made  their  gods,  not  only  the  senseless  idols  of  the 
nations,  but  also  creatures  that  in  themselves  are  hateftd  and  void  of 
beauty.  Hence  they  were  loorthily  punished  through  these  same  abomina- 
tions which  they  worshipped. 

But  (xvi.  2)  instead  of  this  plague  of  vermin,  through  zuhich  the  Egyptians 
came  to  loathe  their  necessary  food,  the  people  of  God  received  benefits  in  the 
matter  of  food,  —  quails  of  rare  flavour  to  satisfy  dainty  appetite  :  having 
suffered  want  just  enough  to  know  what  the  torment  of  the  enemy  'would  be. 

In  conclusion,  the  remark  often  made  in  reference  to  ttie  literary  style  of 
St.  Paul,  may  be  applied  also  to  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  — that  what  is  in  form  a 
digression  will  be  found,  as  regards  the  matter,  to  be  an  advance  in  the  course 
of  the  argument. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


***  For  Books  0/ the  Bible,  or  any  portions  0/  them ,  see  above.  Literary  Index  to  the 

Bible. 
***  For  Literary  Forms  {'Prophecy,'  'Epic,'  '  Lyric, ^  &'c.),  or  subdivisions  0/ these 

(such  as  '  Emblem  Prophecy,'  '  Dramatic  Lyrics,'  &'c.),  sec  above.  Appendix  II. 


Accession  Hymns  :  160 and  (Table)  501. 

Acrostic  devices  :  157  and  note  —  Acros- 
tic Elegies,  157 — Meditations,  r83 
—  Various  examples,  161,  287,  and 
(Table)  500-1. 

Acts  (or  advancing  Stages)  as  a  mode 
of  movement  in  Prophetic  literature : 

369-73- 

Address,  Literature  of:  439  and  Book 
\'I — Divine  Address  as  element  of 
Rhapsodic  dialogue,  368. 

Alternation  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment (Pendulum  Movement)  :  139-42, 
143,  146-7,  148-9,  182  (note),  515  —  in 
Prophetic  literature,  332,  349-51,  373- 
80,  387-91,  399-405.  415-6. 

Analytic     Imagination     in     Wisdom  : 

305- 

Anthems,  National:  142  and  (Table) 
500. 

Antiphonal  structure  of  '  Deborah's 
Song':  132  —  of  Ritual  Psalms,  161. 

Antiphony  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment :  103,  132,  161,  397-8,  413-4. 

Antistrophic  structure  :  58-61  —  Exam- 
ples, 76-7,79,  135-6,  150  —  Antistro- 
phic Introversion,  59-60 — Interweav- 
ing, 61  • — a  mode  of  Lyric  movement, 

334- 
Antithesis    (or   Contrast)    as   mode  of 

Lyric  development :   192,  91,  97,  150-2. 
Apostrophe  :  131,  compare  133-6. 
Ascents,  Songs  of:  170-3  and  (Table) 

501. 


Association  as  an  effect  in  Prophetic 
literature  :  432-6. 

Augmenting  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment :   137,  compare  119,  158,  408. 

'  Authorized  Version '  of  the  Bible :  45, 
46,  82-90. 

Authorship  not  an  element  in  literary 
study:  92-3 — in  application  to  Bibli- 
cal poetry,  93-6. 

Ballad  Dance  as  a  primitive  literary 
form:  107-11— War  Ballads  :  (Table) 
500. 

Benedictions  :  160  and  (Table)  501. 

Blessing  as  a  form  of  Prophetic  litera- 
ture :  460-1  and  (Table)  508. 

Burden:  328  and  (Table)  508. 

Call  (Prophetic) :  343  and  (Table)  509. 

Cardinal  Points,  The  Four,  of  Litera- 
ture:  105-6. 

Ceremonial  Worship  a  prototype  of  Em- 
blem Prophecy :  340. 

Chain  figure :  52-3. 

Chorus,  Characterised  :  Of  Nations,  366, 
408-9— Of  Elders,  376-7  —  Celestial, 
407-8  —  of  Watchmen,  413  —  as  an 
element  of  Rhapsodic  dialogue,  368. 

Chorus,  Impersonal,  as  an  element  in 
Rhapsodic  dialogue:  368  —  illustra- 
tions :  120-4,  379i  400,  402,  403,  406, 
409,  410,  412. 

Chorus,  Rc-citing,  in  Solomon's  Song 
196. 


527 


52S 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Climax  and  Crescendo  as  devices  of 
Lyric  movement:  76,  80,  145,  148,  152, 
158  —  as  an  effect  in  Lyric  Prophecy  : 

334- 
Cluster  of  Prophecy :  430  —  of  Prophetic 

Sentences,  420. 
Cluster  of  Proverbs :   265  and  (Table) 

505- 

Colophon  in  Ecch-siasticus  :  291  —  in 
Deuteronomy,  468. 

Commandments,  The  Ten,  as  prototype 
of  the  Prophetic  Discourse :  329. 

Comment,  Text  and,  as  a  Hterary  form  : 
263  and  Appendix  IV  —  its  connec- 
tion with  the  Digression,  522  —  applied 
to  Wisdom,  305-6. 

Concentration  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment: 130,  145. 

Contrast  (or  Antithesis)  as  a  mode  of 
Lyric  development:  192,91,  97,  150-2. 

Controversy  Prophetic  :  347  and  (Table) 
510. 

Couplet  and  Triplet  as  figures  of  Par- 
allelism :  48-9. 

Creation,  Account  of  in  Genesis  as  ex- 
ample of  Parallelism  :  71-2. 

Creeds,  Lyrical  and  Modern  :  166-8. 

Crescendo  and  Climax  as  devices  of  Lyric  J 
movement :  76,  80, 145,  148,  152, 158  —  ' 
as  an  effect  in  Lyric  Prophecy:  334. 

Cries  as  element  of  Rhapsodic  dialogue  : 
368,  370,  387-9- 

Curse,  The,  in  Job  :  6,  31  —  the  Primi- 
tive Curse  a  prototype  of  the  Doom 
Song:  355. 

Cycle  in  Prophecy :  425-8  and  (Table) 
508.  [Of  Discourses,  426-7 — Dialec- 
tic Cycle,  425  (compare  346-7) — Of 
Dooms,  425  (compare  114-7),  429  — 
Emblem  Cycle,  425  (compare  393) 
—  Vision  Cycle,  427-8,  430,  431.] 

Cycle,  Prophetic  [of  Stories]  :  238  and 
(Table)  504. 

Cycle  or  Game  of  Riddles :  257  and 
(Table)  505. 

Description  as  a  Cardinal  Point  of  Lit- 
erature :   105,  1C7-11. 

Description,  Scenic  (in  the  Rliapsody)  : 
368 ;    compare   374-80,  386,  399,  400, 


408,  411-2  —  Prophetic,  368,  374, 
(Vision)  389. 

Development,  Lyric,  186.  (See  Move- 
ment.) 

Dialogue,  Elements  of,  in  Rhapsody: 
367-8. 

Digression  in  Wisdom  :  306  and  Appen- 
dix IV — Chain  of  Digressions  and 
Digressive  Subordination,  319  and  Ap- 
pendix IV. 

Dirge  as  protot}'pe  of  Elegy :  156  — 
Dirge  Rhythm,  156,  333,  361. 

Discourse  :  Wisdom  Discourses,  491, 
305  and  Chapter  XIII  —  Prophetic,  328 
and  (Table)  508  —  Rhapsodic,  386  and 
(Table)  510. 

Divine  Intervention  in  Job,  22-4, 34-5. 

Doom  Songs  :  Chapter  XV  and  (Table) 
508. 

Doxologies  (Table)  :  501. 

Drama  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms  :  108,  109  —  Hebrew 
literature  shows  dramatic  influences 
rather  than  drama,  in,  compare  381 
and  Chapter  X\'I.  —  DramaUc  Interest 
in  yo5,  25-7. 

Dramatic  Lyrics :  174  and  (Table)  501 

—  Dramatic  Monologue,  282  and 
(Table)  507. 

Dramatic  Transition  as  a  mode  of 
Lyric  movement:  78-9  (compare  90), 
177-9  (compare  184)  — as  an  effect  in 
Prophetic  literature  :  381-5,  366. 

Dumb  Show  in  Prophecy :  338. 

Elegies  :  156  and  (Table)  500. 

Emblem  Literature  :  336  —  QuarJes's 
emblems,  336. 

Emendation,  Textual :  57  (note)  —  com- 
pare 17-8,  472  (note),  61,  276  (notes). 

Encomium  Lyric  :  156,  159,  and  (Table) 
500 — Rhetoric:  281-2  and  (Table) 
506. 

Enumeration  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  devel- 
opment:  160,145.    (See  Reiteration.) 

—  In  Rhetoric  style,  299,  315,  360. 
Envelope  Figure:    53-4  —  compare  69, 

70,  77-80,  1 50- 1  —  Enveloping  Vision  : 
427-8. 
Epic  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental  lite- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


529 


rary  forms  :  107-9  —  question  of  Epic 
Poetry  in  the  Bible,  221  —  Epic  and 
History,  221  —  Epic  Interest  in  Job, 
28-30. 

Epic,  Various  forms  of:  223-43  and 
(Table)  504. 

Epic  Idyl :  235  and  (Table)  511,  504. 

Epic  Prophecy  :  238  and  (Table)  504. 

Epigram  :  260  and  (Table)  507. 

Epilogue  :  302,  385,  393. 

Epistle,  Gnomic:  286-7,  292-3 — Epis- 
tolary Manifesto,  442-3  —  Pastoral 
Epistle,  439-41  —  Epistolary  Treatise, 
441-2. —  (See  also  Table,  511.) 

Essay  :  264-72  and  (Table)  506. 

Exile  Songs  :  63, 157,  171-2,  and  (Table) 
500,  501. 

Fable:  Table  on  page  505  —  compare 
345  and  note. 

Festal  Hymns :  160  and  (Table)  501. 

Floating  Poetry :  93-6. 

Folk  Songs  :  Table  on  page  500 —  com- 
pare 68-9,  287. 

Footnotes  in  Deuteronomy :  445. 

Gnomic    Epistles :     286-7,    292-3,    and 

(Table)  511. 
Gospels   as   a   literary  form :    250   and 

(Table)  503. 
Gradual  Psalms:  170,  (note). 

Hallelujahs  :  160  and  (Table)  501. 

Hebrew  Literature,  Distinguishing  fea- 
tures of:  1 11-24.  [Not  Drama  but 
dramatic  influences,  iii  —  special  de- 
partment of  Prophecy,  112  —  Overlap- 
ping of  Verse  and  Prose,  112-24.] 

History  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms :  no. 

History,  Various  forms  of:  244  and 
Chapter  X,  and  (Table)  502-3. 

Idyl  as  a  literary  form  :,  195  (note),  and 
(Table)  511  —  Solomon's  Song,  194 
and  Chapter  VIII  —  Kuth,  235. 

Imagery  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  develop- 
ment: 186-92,  84,  161  —  massing  of 
ima<4ery,  186-8  (compare  435-6)  — 
Concealed  Imagery,  188-92. 


Inauguration    of  Jerusalem,    Anthems 

for:  100-3,  154-5- 
Incident :  in  History,  223  —  in  Prophecy, 

347  and  (Table)  510. 
Indenting,  Coordinate  and  Subordinate  : 

513-4- 

Inquiry,  Prophetic :  339,  346,  and 
(Table)  510. 

Intercession  as  Prophetic  prototype : 
346. 

Intercourse,  Prophetic:  346 and  (Table) 
510. 

Interlacing  (or  Interweaving)  Parallel- 
ism :  51,  6r. 

Interruption  as  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment: 131,  149  —  in  Prophetic  litera- 
ture, 120-4  (compare  385). 

Interweaving  (or  Interlacing)  Parallel- 
ism :  51,  61. 

Introversion :  in  Couplets  and  Triplets, 
50,  51  —  Antistrophic,  59-60  —  Stro- 
phic,  515. 

Judgment :  force  of  the  word  in  O.  T. : 
167,  302 —  as  a  motive  in  Lyric  poetry  : 
(see  Table  on  page  501) — in  Pro- 
phetic literature :  Book  V  generally  — 
especially  364  and  Chapter  XVI,  398, 
413-6. 

Lamech,  Song  of:  68. 

Lectionary,  Revised :  46. 

Liturgies  Modern  and  Biblical:  166  — 
Liturgical  Poetry  160-70  and  (Table) 
501  —  compare  414. 

Lord's  Prayer,  The,  as  an  Envelope 
Figure :  69-70. 

Lyric  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms:  108-10 — Lyric  move- 
ment or  development :  see  Movement 

—  Lyric  elements  in  Rhapsodic  dia- 
logue, 368  —  Lyric  Outbursts  in  Proph- 
ecy, 120-4,  366,  376-9,  400-5,  406,  412 

—  Lyric  Interest  in  Job,  31-2. 
Lyric  Prophecy  :  333  and  (Table)  508. 
Lyrics  Prophetic  :  333  and  (Table)  508. 

Manifesto,  Prophetic  :  386,  430,  482,  490. 

—  Epistolary :  442,  443,  and  (Table) 
5"- 


530 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Maxims  :  263  and  (Table)  505. 

Meditations, Lyric  :  183  and  (Table)  501. 

Miscellanies  of  Wisdom :  284,  289 ; 
compare  294. 

Monodies,  Lyric :  183,  164,  174-7,  ^n<i 
(Table)  501. 

Monologue,  Dramatic :  282-3  ^''"' 
(Table)  507  —  Prophetic  Monologue 
or  Soliloquy,  405,  406,  413  —  Alter- 
nating Monologue  as  an  element  of 
Rhapsodic  dialogue :  368,  compare 
350  and  399-405- 

Movement,  Modes  of,  in  Lyric  poetry : 
Alternation  (or  Pendulum  move- 
ment), 139-42,  143,  146-7,  148-9  — 
Antiphony,  132,  103,  161  —  Augment- 
ing, 137, 119, 158, 408  —  Concentration, 

130,  145  —  Contrast  or  Antithesis, 
192.  91,  97,  150-2  —  Crescendo  and 
Climax,  76,  80,  145,  148,  152,  158,  334 

—  Dramatic  Transition,  78-9  (com- 
pare 90),  177-9  (compare  184)  — 
Imagery,    186-92,   84  —  Interruption, 

131,  149 — Reiteration,  Enumeration, 
Repetition,  and  Refrain,  185,  57,  61, 
63-5,  144,  145,  147,  148  (compare  65- 
7),  160  —  Retrogression  (180-3). 

Movement,  Modes  of,  in  Prophetic  liter- 
ature :  Advancing  Stages  or  '  Acts,' 
369-73 — Distinct  Stages  or '  Phases, ' 
391,  391-4,  395-7  and  Chapter    XVII 

—  Alternation  (or  Pendulum  move- 
ment), 332,  349-51.  373-80,  387-91, 
399-405,  415-6  —  Antistrophic,  334-5 

—  Crescendo  and  Climax,  334  —  Dra- 
matic Transition,  366,  381-5— Inter- 
ruption, 120-4  (compare  385) — Sud- 
den Realisation,  385-6  (compare  184) 

—  Reiteration,  Enumeration,  Repe- 
tition, Refrain,  334-5,  360,  362-3,  392, 
I 14-7. 

Music  :  Confusion  of  figures  in  clianting, 
48-9  —  Musical  Expression  of  Struc- 
ture, 67. 

Narrative,  Historic  and  Lyric:  130. 

Occasional  Poetry,  153  and  (Table)  500. 
Ode  :     Greek,    58  —  Biblical,    127    and 
(Table)  500. 


Oracle  as  a  form  of  Prophecy:  328 
(note)  and  (Table)  508;  compare  346, 

355-8. 

Oral  tradition  in  relation  to  Biblical  poe- 
try :  93-6. 

Oratory  as  a  branch  of  the  Literature  of 
Address:  439,444,  and  Chapter  XX; 
compare  Table  on  page  511. 

Overlapping  of  Verse  and  Prose  in  Bib- 
lical literature:  112-24  —  Examples, 
334.  356^.  361-3- 

Parable  :  Table  on  page  505  —  Pro- 
phetic, 345  and  (Table)  509—  Drama- 
tised :  Table  on  page  505. 

Paradox :  294. 

Parallelism:  the  basis  of  Biblical  Ver- 
sification, 46-7  —  Figures  of  Parallel- 
ism, 48-54 —  Lower  or  Rhythmic  Par- 
allelism, 45  and  Chapter  I,  73-6  — 
Musical  Expression  of  Parallel  Struc- 
ture, 48-9,  67  —  Lower  Parallelism  rep- 
resented in  Structural  Printing,  518-9 
—  Parallelism  a  factor  in  Interpreta- 
tion, 68-73 — Higher  Parallelism  or 
Parallelism  of  Interpretation,  68  and 
Chapter  II  — Higher  Parallelism  rep- 
resented in  Structural  Printing,  512-8 — 
Paiallelism  and  its  antithesis  Surprise, 
76-80 — the  Higher  and  Lower  Par- 
allelism applied  to  the  same  passage, 
74-6. 

Parallelism,  Figures  of:  Couplet  and 
Triplet,  48-9  —  confusion  of  these  in 
chanting,  48-51  —  Quatrains,  50-51  — 
Double  Triplets,  51 — Chain  Figure, 
52-3  —  Envelope  Figure,  53-4  — 
Question  and  Answer,  54  (note)  — 
Recitative  additions  to  figures,  51-2. 

Pause,  as  a  literary  device  :  182,  366. 

Pendulum  Movement  (or  Alternation)  : 
in  Lyric  Poetry,  139-42,  143,  146-7, 
148-9 — in  Prophetic  literature,  332, 
349-51.  373-80,  387-91.  399-405.  415-6- 

Phases  as  a  mode  of  movement  in  Pro- 
phetic literature  :  391,  391-4,  395,  and 
Chapter  XVII. 

Philippic  in  relation  to  Doom  Song:  355. 

Philosophy  as  one  of  the  six  fundamen- 
tal literary  forms:  no — Biblical  Phi- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


531 


losophy  or  Wisdom,  255 — Interest  of 
Philosophy  in  Job,  33. 

Philosophy  or  Wisdom  :  Various  forms 
of:  Cliapter  XI  and  (Table)  505-7. 

Poetry  as  one  of  the  four  Cardinal 
Points  of  Literature  :  106,  107-11. 

Postscript:  184. 

Prayer  as  part  of  the  Literature  of  Ad- 
dress :  444  and  (Table)  511. 

Prayer-Book  Version  of  Psalms :  83. 

Prefaces,  289-go,  and  see  492-5. 

Prelude :  in  Lyric  Poetry,  133,  137,  139, 
144,  146,  147,  148,  149,  150 — in 
Prophecy,  374,  382,  397. 

Presentation  as  one  of  the  four  Car- 
dinal Points  of  Literature,  105,  107- 
II. 

Printing  of  Bible  obscures  its  form  :  45 

—  Structural  Printing,  Appendix  III. 
[Higher  Parallelism,  512-8  —  Lower, 
518-20  —  Condensed  Structure,  518  — 
Verse  Structure,  519  —  Centric  Print- 
ing, 519-20.] 

Prologue:  294. 

Prophecy,  one  of  the  three  distinguish- 
ing features  of  Hebrew  literature : 
112 — the  word   'prophecy,'  327,  342 

—  as  a  department  of  literature,  327  — 
Interest  of  Prophecy  in  Job,  39. 

Prophecy,  Various  Forms  of:  Chapters 

XIV-XVI,  and  (Table)  508-10. 
Prophet,  Sign  of  the :  340  and  (Table) 

509  —  Call  of  the  Prophet:    343  and 

(Table)  509. 
Prophetic  Call,  343  and  (Table)  509  — 

Controversies,  347   and   (Table)    510 

—  Cycle,  425-8  and  (Table)  508  — 
Description,  368  (compare  375-80, 
389) — Discourse,  328  and  (Table), 
508  —  Epics,  240  and  (Table)  504  — 
Incidents,  347  and  (Table)  510 — In- 
tercourse, 346  and  (Table)  510  — 
Lyrics,  333  and  (Table)  508  —  Para- 
ble, 345  and  (Table)  509  —  Response, 
346  and  (Table)  510  —  Rhapsody, 
Chapters  XVI  and  XVII,  and 
(Table)  510  —  Sentences  417-25  a«d 
(Table)  508. 

Prose  as  one  of  the  four  Cardinal  Points 
of  Literature:     106,   107-11 — double 


usage  of  the  word,  106  —  Overlapping 
of  Prose  and  Verse  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  Hebrew  literature,  112-24 
(compare  334,  356-7,  361-3). 

Proverb  :  256  and  (Table)  505-7. 

Proverb  Cluster :  265  and  (Table)  505. 

Psalms,  Varieties  of:  see  Table  on 
pages  500-1. 

Quarles's  Emblems :  336. 
Quatrain :  50-51. 

Question  and  Answer  as  a  figure  of  Par- 
allelism :  54  (note). 

Realisation  is  a  mode  of  movement  in 
Prophetic  literature:  385-6  (compare 
184). 

Recitative  in  figures  of  Parallelism:  51-2. 

Refrains  as  a  structural  device  and  mode 
of  movement  in  Lyric  poetry  (see 
Reiteration)  :  55,  57,  61,  63-5,  65-7, 
"4-7.  138-9.  147.  196-7.  205,  392,  414, 
515 — in  Lyric  Prophecy,  334  —  as  a 
leit  DJOtif  in  Joel,  369. 

Refrain  augmenting :  158  —  parenthetic, 
196. 

Reiteration  in  Prophecy  :  338  —  in  Pro- 
phetic Sentences,  419. 

Reiteration  (Enumeration,  Repetition, 
Refrain)  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  movement, 
185, 57, 61, 63-5, 144, 145, 147, 148  (com- 
pare 65-7),  160 — in  Prophetic  litera- 
ture, 334-5,  360,  362-3,  392,  114-7.  , 

Reminiscences,  Dramatised :  197-9. 

Repetition  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment, 185.     (See  Reiteration.) 

Response,  Prophetic :  346  and  (Table) 
510. 

Retrogression  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment :  180-3. 

Revelation  as  a  form  of  Prophecy  :  342- 
5  and  (Table)  509. 

Rhapsody  as  a  form  of  Prophetic  liter- 
ature :  364,  and  Chapter  XVI  —  Rhap- 
sodic Discourse  :  386  and  (Table)  510. 

Rhetoric  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms:  no  —  as  a  division  of 
Biblical  literature,  439  and  Book  VI, 
and  (Table)  511  —  Interest  of  Rhet- 
oric in  Job,  39. 


532 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Rhetoric  Encomium :  281-2  and  (Table) 

506. 
Rhythmic  Parallelism :  73  and  Chapter  I. 
Riddle  as  a  form  of  Wisdom  literature : 

256  and  (Table)  505. 
Righteousness,  meaning  of  the  word  in 

the  Old  Testament:  399  (note). 
Ritual  Hymns  :  160  and  (Table)  501. 

Salutation  (or  Encomium)  as  a  form  of 
Lyric  Poetry:  159  and  (Table)  500. 

Satan  in  Job  :  3,  28-9. 

Satire  in  relation  to  Doom  Song :   355. 

Scenic  Description  as  an  element  of 
Rhapsodic  dialogue :  368  (compare 
374-80,  386,  399-400,  408,  411-2). 

Science,  Interest  of,  in  Jod  :■  37-9. 

Sennacherib's  Invasion,  Occasional 
Poetry  connected  with  :  153-4. 

Sentences  (or  Sayings)  of  the  Wise : 
258  and  (Table)  505  —  Prophetic  Sen- 
tences, 417-25  and  (Table)  508. 

Servant  of  Jehovah  in  Isaiahan  Rhap- 
sody :  397,  399,  400  and  note,  405-6, 
408-9,410-3,414. 

Soliloquy:  405,  406,  413.  (See  Mono- 
logue.) 

Seven  as  a  common  form  in  Biblical 
literature:  404  (note). 

Sign  of  the  Prophet:  340  and  (Table) 

509- 

Songs:  of  Deborah,  127-36;  of  Moses 
and  Miriam,  137-9;  of  Moses,  146, 
4^8-60;  of  the  Thunderstorm,  147;  of 
Ascents  or  Degrees,  170-3  —  Choral 
Songs  in  Prophecy:  366,  368,376,377, 
379.  407-8,  408,  408-9,  413  —  Imper- 
sonal Songs  in  Prophecy :  368  (com- 
pare 120-4),  379.  40O1  4°2,  403,  406, 
409,  410,  412  —  Songs  in  Ode  form: 
146  and  (TTable)  500  —  Doom  Songs : 
Chapter  XV  and  (Table)  508. 

Sonnet :  272-81  and  (Table)  507. 

Spectator,  Prophetic,  in  Rhapsodic  dia- 
logue:  368,378,380;  compare  387-9. 

Speeches:  in  y*)/;,  39-40,444  —  Various: 
444 and  (Table)  511  —  '\n  Deuteronomy, 
444  and  Chapter  XX. 

Stages  as  a  mode  of  movement  in  Pro- 
phetic literature :  369-73. 


Stanzas  :  54-67.  [Of  Similar  Figures, 
54-5 ;  of  Varying  Figures,  55-7 ;  Anti- 
strophic  Structure,  58-61 ;  Strophic 
Structure,  62-7.] 

Story,    Prophetic:     238    and    (Table) 

504- 

Strophic  structure :  62-7. 

Structure  of  Versification :  45,  and 
Chapters  I  and  II.  [Rhythmic 
Structures,  45  and  Chapter  I  —  fig- 
ures of  parallelism,  48-54  —  stanzas, 
54-67  —  Antistrophic  structure,  58-61 

—  Strophic  Structure,  62-7  —  musical 
expression  of  structure,  48-9,  67  — 
structure  and  interpretation,  68-73  — 
the  Lower  and  Higher  Parallelism, 
73-6.] 

Structure,  Antiphonal:  132,  161. 

Structural  Printing:  Appendix  III. 
[Higher  Parallelism,  512-8 — Lower, 
518-20 — Condensed  Structure,  518  — 
Verse  Structure,  519  —  Centric  Print- 
ing, 519-20.] 

Subordination,  Digressive  :  521  and  Ap- 
pendix IV. 

Taunt-Song  :  connected  with  the  Elegy, 
156 — with  Prophecy,  333  —  compare 
366,  403. 

Text  and  Comment  as  a  form  of  Wisdom 
literature  :  263,  522-3  and  (Table)  505 

—  applied  to  Wisdom,  305-6. 
Title  Pages  :  2S8,  467,  477,  479. 
Transitional  Stage  (or  Pause)  in  Lyric 

Poetry :  182  (compare  Table  on  page 

501)  —  in  Prophecy,  366. 
Transition,    Dramatic :    as  a   mode  of 

Lyric  movement,  78-9  (compare  90), 

177-9    (compare  184)  —  in  Prophetic 

literature  :  381-5,  366. 
Treatise :  264  —  Epistolary  :  441-2,  443, 

and  (Table)  511. 
Triplet    and    Couplet:    48-9 — Double 

Triplet,  51  —  Triplet  Reversed,  51. 

Unit  Proverb  :  256  and  (Table)  505. 

Unity,  Higher :  distinguished  from 
Lower  Unities,  81-3  —  obscured  by 
modes  of  reading  and  printing  Scrip- 
ture, 84-90  —  relation  of  Higher  Unity 


GENERAL  INDEX 


533 


to  literary  classification,  105  —  literary 
unity  distinguished  from  unify  of 
authorship,  95. 
Unity,  Higher,  Various  forms  of:  Sim- 
ple, 90 — of  Transition,  90-1  —  of 
Contrast  and  Antithesis,  91-8  —  of 
Aggregation,  98-100  —  of  External 
Circumstances,  100-3. 

Verse  and  Prose  overlapping,  a  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture: 112-24  (compare  334,  356-7, 
361). 

Versification,  Interest  of,  in  Job  :  41  — 
Versification  and  Rhythmic  Parallel- 
ism, 45  and  Chapter  I.  [Obscured  by 
printing,  45  —  based  on  parallelism, 
46  —  figures  of  parallelism,  48-54  — 
stanzas,  54-67.] 

Version  :  '  Authorized,'  45,  46,  82,  90  — 
Prayer-Book  Version  (of  the  Psalms), 
83  —  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible,  46, 
82-90. 

Victory  Hymns  :  153  and  (Table)  500. 


Vision  as  a  form  of  Prophecy :  342  and 
(Table)  509. 

Voices  as  an  element  in  Rhapsodic  dia- 
logue :  368  (compare375-8o,  388,  397- 
8). 

Votive  Hymns :  160  and  (Table)  501. 

Wail  as  a  prototype  of  the  Elegy :  156  — 
Wail  over  Egypt,  361. 

War  Ballad  :  see  Table  on  page  500. 

Watchman,  Prophetic  :  355,  413. 

Whirlwind  in  Job :  21-4,  25. 

Wisdom  :  Biblical  term  for  Philosophy, 
255  —  conception  of  Wisdom  in  Pro- 
verbs, 288  —  in  Ecclesiasliciis,  291-2  — 
in  St.  James,  292-3  —  in  Ecclesiastes, 
302-4 —.  in  Wisdom  0/  Solomon,  2p(>-^ 
—  suinmary  :  323-4. 

Wisdom,  Sacred  Books  of:  284  and 
Chapters  XII,  XIII,  and  Table  on 
pages  505-7  —  analogies  to  these  of 
N.  T.  works,  443. 

Wisdom,  Various  Forms  of:  256  and 
Chapter  XI,  with  Table  on  pages  505-7, 


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Date  Due 


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